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THE 


Undertakers' Manual: 

A TREATISE OF 


USEFUL AND RELIABLE INFORMATION; 

MBRACING COMPLETE AND DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS FOR 
THE PRESERVATION OF BODIES. 



ALSO, THE 

MOST APPROVED EMBALMING METHODS 

I L J 

WITH 


! 


HINTS ON THE PROFESSION OF UNDERTAKING. 


BY AUGUSTE RE 


ROCHESTER, N. Y. 



A. H. NIRD LINGER & CO., PUBLISHERS. 





IV r L 

K h 






'Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by 

AUGUSTE RENOUARD, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAG*. 

Introduction, ------ iii 

To the Profession, - vi 

Undertaking as a Profession, g 

Embalming, - - - - . _ I2 

The Laboratory, - - - - . -17 

Drugs and Chemicals, - - - - - 21 

Post Mortem Examinations, - - - .30 

Preservation of Bodies, - 36 

State of Body after Death, - - - _ - 41 

Death from Poisoning, - 44 

Embalming Bodies, ------ 49 

The Arterial System, - 56 

Animal Matter, - - - - - ' - 64 

Thrombosis and Embolism, - 70 

Process of Embalming, - - - - .76 

Explanation of Terms, ----- 91 

Of Amimal Chemistry—Section one, - - - 96 

“ “ Section two, - - - 115 

Gannal’s Process of Embalming, - - - - 123 

Embalming by Maceration, - - - - 128 

Laws of Health, ------ 130 

Embalming Process of Worth and Durand, - - 142 

Miscellaneous Duties, - - - - - 146 

Rapid Decay of the Human Structure, - - 157 

Practices which must be Abolished, ... 169 

Management of an Undertaking Establishment, - 175 

Modifications in Embalming Bodies, ... 182 

Chlorine: its Properties and Uses, - - - 186 

Instruments, ------ 191 

Gaseous Compounds, ----- 197 

General View of the Circulating Apparatus, - - 200 

Glossary and Index, ----- 209 







INTRODUCTION. 


^'HE AUTHOR of this book has labored dili- 
t l) gently, and, as I think, with remarkable success, 
to occupy an original and unique field in Amer¬ 
ican literature. Hitherto, a complete treatise on the 
important profession of Undertaking has been un¬ 
known. In fact, until the establishment of ‘‘The 
Casket ” (to which Mr. Renouard has been a regu¬ 
lar contributor from the beginning), there never had 
been published anything concerning the duties and 
amenities of the undertaker. There seemed to be a 
vague notion that there was nothing to write about, 
and so of course nothing had been written calculated 
to raise the profession to its proper dignity, and at 
the same time put it in the light in which a correct 
estimate of it could be obtained by the public. To 
be sure, there had been, and occasionally continues 
to be, diatribes in the secular and religious press 


on the “pomp,” “extravagances,” “ oppression/'etc., 
etc., of funerals, and plentiful rhetoric, couched in 
burlesque, sneer and satire, on the methods of the 
undertaker; but a volume of sound sense, practical 






IV 


undertakers’ manual. 


advice and valuable information for every one con¬ 
nected with the business never appeared important 
enough to command the serious thought and arduous 
labor of formulating into a Manual. 

This work, however, has at last been accomplished 
by one of their number; a gentleman who, by edu¬ 
cation, industry and taste, is fully qualified for so 
important an undertaking. How successfully, the 
following pages amply testify. To occupy a great 
deal of space with complete instructions for the pres¬ 
ervation of dead bodies was absolutely necessary, for 
without such instructions the book would fail of its 
mission and be absolutely valueless. To impart this 
important information, required the author to devote 
page after page to explaining Physiological Chemistry 
and Anatomy, to the profound study of which he has 
devoted the best years of his active life. 

The more closely these pages are studied, the more 
satisfactory will be the knowledge gleaned by the 
student. Let no one, however, say that these chap¬ 
ters are burdened with unnecessary technical terms, 
for no scientific information can be imparted without 
employing the words and phrases which long usage 
by scientists has sanctioned. And if any individual 
supposes he can master the details without laborious 
study, and without commencing with the rudimentary 




I 


INTRODUCTION. V 

principles, he may as well stop before beginning, for 
he will spend his time in vain and his strength for 
naught. The study of the facts herein inculcated 
will, however, become, as the study of any important 
subject becomes to the earnest student, not only in¬ 
teresting, but really fascinating. 

I therefore take especial pleasure in commending 
this Manual to all undertakers and their assistants, 
being fully persuaded that it will materially assist 
them in becoming more proficient in their profession. 
And as the years roll on, I am quite confident that 
the attainment of more accurate knowledge will be 
demanded, and more exacting duties required, of the 
undertaker ; hence, he who acquires the valuable in¬ 
formation which this book imparts will be the success¬ 
ful undertaker of the future. 

THOMAS GLIDDON, 
Rochester , N. Y., June i, 1878. 


/ 









TO THE PROFESSION. 


t 

ijtfN presenting this book to the American under- 
takers, the object is to instruct, as well as to 
create interest in the profession, by developing 
scientific facts which are necessary to promote the 
avocation of an undertaker to the rank which it 
deservedly ought to occupy. 

The several chapters, which may at first sight seem 
dry and superfluous, are nevertheless essential to a 
clear and thorough understanding of the several pro¬ 
cesses of embalming given in this book. Had these 
seemingly arid dissertations been left out altogether, 
the work of embalming and of preserving bodies 
would have proved a sore puzzle to many; and it 
was found necessary to elucidate the modus operandi 
of each process, by giving reasons for the use of the 
chemicals, their mode of action, and the results to be 
expected by a careful and discriminate use of them. 

The names of the chemicals and the quantity to be 
used was not found sufficient in instructing under 
takers; but, to satisfy the investigating propensities 
of all, and to make every one thoroughly conversant 


vin 


undertakers’ manual. 


with the means employed, the nature and properties 
of the different chemicals used have been explained 
at length. 

As to the chapters devoted to anatomy, the arterial 
circulation and the different parts of the human struc¬ 
ture, they will be found indispensable in this work, 

and, when thoroughly understood, will be found to 
greatly facilitate the work of the operator. 

How can the embalmer find the point of injection, 
or go on with his work, if he be totally ignorant of 
the places of the different organs, the courses of the 
veins and arteries, their relations and relative posi¬ 
tions ? It is, then, an undeniable fact, that without 
this knowledge the embalmer will accomplish his task 
more or less well, and without knowing with any 
degree of certainty if the process of injecting is com¬ 
plete, or if the parts intended to be injected have 
been reached by the fluid. 

Closely allied to this are the conditions of the body 
after death, as governed by circumstances which may 
affect it, and thereby modify the treatment thereof— 
admitting that different modes of treatment are re¬ 
quired by different cases. How, then, is the under¬ 
taker to discriminate, if he be not warned beforehand, 
or if his knowledge does not teach him what course 
is the best to follow ? And how is this knowledge to 



TO THE PROFESSION. 


IX 


be gained, if he has not made it a point to study at 
least that part of the human organism with which he 
may have to deal ? 

As the different processes given in this book for 
the preserving and embalming of bodies are founded 
upon practical experiments, based upon purely scien¬ 
tific principles, it becomes, then, necessary that these 
principles be fully explained, so as throw sufficient 
light on points which might otherwise remain obscure. 

What has been said about anatomy applies equally 
well to the study of animal chemistry. The con¬ 
stituents of the human body, fluid and solid, have all 
more or less different properties, as also their compo¬ 
sition varies to a great extent. It is, therefore, a point 
of material importance for undertakers to know and 
understand their formation, the causes which may ac¬ 
celerate their decay or putrefaction, and also the 
means which may be employed to the best advantage 
to counteract their tendency to disintegration. 

All the points above mentioned being understood, 
it follows therefrom that the knowledge thus imparted 
will prove of great utility to the profession, although 
it may appear at first sight an unwarrantable waste of 
time and a mass of technicalities. 

It may also be useful to repeat here certain injunc¬ 
tions as to the dangers to be encountered in the 


X 


undertakers’ manual. 


handling of the dead, and also of the proper care to 
be exercised by undertakers in avoiding to rush 
heedlessly into danger and aggravate the perils of 
their calling. 

The public at Urge have but a very imperfect idea 
of the dangerous, and even, in some cases, repulsive, 
character of our profession. The undertaker, and the 
perils attending in many instances the discharge of 
his duties, as a general thing, are very seldom thought 
of by those outside of the profession. To a great 
many the business of the undertaker has something 
dreadful and appalling about it; and without very 
well understanding themselves the nature of the feel¬ 
ing, it is always associated with the horrible. 

This impression, which seems to have grown in the 
minds of the majority, is altogether an erroneous one, 
which ought to be eradicated from public sentiment. 
Undertakers, as a class, are men useful to society; 
their calling, far from being horrible and loathsome, 
as the ignorant and shallow minded are pleased to 
call it, is one which requires a great deal of self- 
denial, and which often brings to the surface the 
finest traits of human nature. 

Granted that our profession is one fraught with 
dangers, it becomes incumbent upon professionals to 
protect themselves against them by all the means that 




TO THE PROFESSION. 


XI 


knowledge, experience and science may suggest. One 
great mistake, and one which has been repeated too 
often, is the false security some may place in the use 
of strong liquors to combat and render void the 
deadly effects of contagion. This has been a stum¬ 
bling block to many; and without incurring the accu¬ 
sation of being a fanatic in regard to temperance, we 
may safely assert that a great many of our profession¬ 
als have fallen victims to the effects of alcohol, which, 
being used at first as a sort of medical preventive, 
soon assumes full sway over the mind, and baffles 
their best efforts to resist it. 

If we are to look anywhere for a preventive of 
contagion and infection, we must look to the direc¬ 
tions and remedies which medical science holds in 
store; and also to the undisputable fact, that in the 
caution used and the care exercised in handling 
bodies, assisted by a discriminate judgment, lies our 
best pledge of safety. 

As it has been remarked before, the different modes 
of preserving and embalming bodies given in this book 
are not mere speculations as to probabilities, nor are 
they simply mere recipes picked up at random ; but 
they are the results of long practice and successful 
experiments, which have demonstrated, in a most 
satisfactory manner, that the advantages claimed for 


Xll 


undertakers’ manual. 


these same processes are well founded and worthy of 
credit. 

The long chapter on chemistry and physiology is, 
therefore, not only essential to the full understanding 
of the methods given, but it is also intended as a 
proof of the judicious selection of the chemicals that 
are employed in the operation of embalming, as also 
of the system upon which this operation is based. 

It must not be supposed that all the known modes 
of embalming and preserving bodies are to be found 
in this book, nor was it ever intended to have it so; 
only those that are known to be reliable, and which 
have been found to give entire satisfaction, have been 
elucidated. 

There are other methods, which are also said to be 

good; but, until they are found by actual and prac¬ 
tical experiment to be worthy the merits claimed for 
them, they shall not be made public. However, 
should they prove to be equal, if not superior, in one 
way or another, to the methods herein illustrated, we 
will bring them out in the course of time to the 
notice of the profession. 

UNDERTAKERS AND THEIR ASSISTANTS. 

Among the many things important to undertakers 
to bear in mind is the discretion that must necessarily 
be employed in the choice of their help and assistants. 


TO THE PROFESSION. 


Xlll 


To a great number this caution will seem trivial and 
perhaps superfluous; but we hope those who may- 
think so will change their opinion after reading atten¬ 
tively the following. 

We have stated at the commencement of this work 
that every man cannot be an undertaker; it is equally 
true, also, that every man cannot fill with credit and 
satisfactorily the position of assistant to an under¬ 
taker. As a good, efficient assistant can, to a great 
extent, enhance the repute and promote the interests 
of his employer, so it is that a careless, inattentive, 
self-conceited man may and will cause harm in the 
same ratio. 

A first-class assistant should consider the interests 
of his employer as closely his own as though they 
were so in fact, and perform his duties outside the 
store with as much promptitude, thoroughness and 
correctness of deportment as if he were under the 
immediate supervision of his employer. 

A slovenly appearance in public should be guarded 
against: and a man who does not care for his per¬ 
sonal appearance seldom possesses much regard for 
anything else; moreover, it is not beneficial to the 
establishment with which he may be connected. 

Trustworthiness is also to be looked after in such 
parties, not only so far as immediate honesty is con- 


XIV 


undertakers’ manual. 


cerned, but also in the punctual discharge of his 
duties. The profession of an undertaker is confining 
and exceptional in its nature, and requires constant 
attention. Pleasure and amusements are a secondary 
consideration; and any man accustomed to self-indul¬ 
gence in the above to any extent should scrupulously 
keep out of the business, and select some other means 
of livelihood more congenial to his tastes. As an 
assistant may be called upon to exercise his functions 
at any hour of the day or night, he must be ready, 
and constantly so, to answer any call made upon his 
services. 

An assistant should also enjoy sound health and a 
strong constitution, as the strain upon his physical 
powers may be placed to a severe test at times. He 
should be a man of some social standing, and be a 
thorough master of his profession, as he may at times 
be called upon to officiate instead of his employer, 
and any show of ignorance or neglect on his part will 
not only be a stigma upon himself, but will also 
reflect discredit upon the name of the party whom 
he may be serving. 

An ill-mannered, boorish assistant is a plague to 
any establishment; so is also the self-conceited, fop¬ 
pish, ignorant one. The first is liable to give offence 
by the rudeness of his speech and manners; the last 


TO THE PROFESSION. 


XV 


will surely alienate the good will of patrons by his 
overbearing demeanor and shallow pretensions to a 
knowledge which he does not really possess. 

A good assistant should know all that pertains to 
his business, not in superficial and light manner, but 
in thorough, complete fashion. He must be able to 
not only line a casket, but manufacture his own lining 
if necessary • to take charge of all the details of a 
funeral; assist physicians in a post mortem examina¬ 
tion, if required so to do; or properly embalm a 
corpse. On the other hand, it must be conceded that 
such a man as I have described is a valuable one for 
an assistant, and ought to receive a generous remu¬ 
neration, and also be made to feel that he is appre¬ 
ciated. 


CONCLUSION. 

My effort in this little volume has been to offer to 
my professional brethren the means employed by the 
most eminent chemists, both in this country and 
Europe, to preserve bodies, and the methods given 
are the best known to modern science. I have also 
tried to make them feel aware of the necessity of 
knowledge, and shall feel happy if by so doing I 
have helped to raise our profession to the standard it 
really deserves. 


































































' 











- 






















UNDERTAKING. 


A 

T may not be amiss at the commencement of this 
work, to say a few words about the profession of 
an undertaker, and undertakers as a class. 

Among the many who have chosen 

UNDERTAKING AS A PROFESSION, 

and carried on the business for years, there exists a 
certain class who, although pecuniarily successful, do 
not have a very clear idea of the requisite qualities 
indispensable to the general make up of a first-class 
professional. Others seem to ignore the multitudin¬ 
ous duties, the performance of which will bring either 
credit, or blame, to themselves, according to the de¬ 
gree of tact or skill exhibited in the discharge thereof. 

A great many have gone into the business simply 
because it is represented to them as a money making 
profession ; others, because their fathers being under¬ 
takers have .thought proper to train them to it, 
although their mercantile ideas may run in another 
direction. And again, some without capital will try 
and battle against competition, merely to make a 
living; but above all, there is that class of men who, 
entirely ignorant of the rudimentary knowledge of the 
business, having means, and regardless of the qualifi- 


6 


undertakers’ manual. 


cations necessary to insure success, plunge right into 
it with the idea that it is a safe investment for sur¬ 
plus funds, a genteel employment, and one which, 
according to their notions, does not require any 
extraordinary amount of brains or labor. 

Is it then a matter of astonishment if so many of our 
undertakers fail, or find themselves unable to cope 
with some more favored rival ? To them it is a source 
of wonder, but to a discriminating public the cause is 
soon apparent. 

It is safe to assert that every one cannot be an 
undertaker; in this profession, a man is more than in 
any other the architect of his own fortune ; his success 
depends altogether upon his tact, skill, discrimination 
and untiring efforts to please those who may honor 
him with their trust. No small matter is it for an 
undertaker to perform his solemn duties with credit 
to himself and to the satisfaction of all present; sor¬ 
row has not so blunted all other feelings in relations 
and friends as to make them relax their lynx eyed 
vigilance of every motion of the undertaker while 
performing the delicate duties of his avocation. 

He must be endowed with the soft touch of a 
woman in the handling of the dear remains; his work 
must be performed in silence, with soft tread and ex¬ 
pedition; his presence in the house is a constant 
reminder to all of the irreparable loss which has bereft 
the family of one of its members. 

He must be quick of perception and ready of expe¬ 
dients, as there is often no time left for reflection. To 


UNDERTAKING. 


7 


hesitate at times would be taken for ignorance, and 
prompt action is the only means at hand to retrieve 
himself. 

A clear head and a cool judgment are among the 
most necessary qualities. Urbane and affable in his 
manners; your first-class professional is an accom¬ 
plished gentleman ; his knowledge of the world and 
daily contact with people of all conditions allow him 
to assimilate himself with quiet dignity with persons 
of all rank in the social scale of life. 

Well dressed, yet without ostentation, punctual in 
his engagements, without the flurry of general transac¬ 
tions, he will treat his more wealthy customers with 
deferential politeness without cringing, as also will he 
bring in his dealings with his more modest patrons 
none of the hauteur characteristic of a narrow mind 
and a lack of education. 

Perfect equanimity of temper is a transcendent 
virtue in an undertaker. Mistakes and delays will 
happen in spite of the most careful preparations 
and the best laid plans ; accidents, unforeseen and un¬ 
thought of, will occur suddenly ; it is then that a clear 
headed man will find some prompt means to remedy 
all before any one of those present has taken notice of 
anything amiss. 

Good taste is also eminently one of the requisite 
attributes to be displayed in the easy, informal laying 
out of the remains, the attitude of repose devoid of 
the conventional rigidity of limbs ; in the chaste trim¬ 
mings of the casket, rich with elegance, but without 


8 


undertakers' manual. 


overloading with useless ornaments. How many so- 
called undertakers will calculate the beauty of a casket 
by the accumulation of silver ornaments promiscuously 
scattered on the top and sides; to such the profusion 
of flashy trimmings is the standard of elegance. 

The floral decorations either in the house or the 
church must also be in accordance with the spirit of 
the scene. Good taste will likewise dictate to the 
undertaker that any attempt at a lachrymose or woe 
begone cast of countenance on his part, will not be re¬ 
garded by his patrons as a criterion of his sympathies 
for the bereaved family, but rather as a hypocritical 
mask assumed for the occasion. A decorous, quiet 
bearing is by far better appreciated by friends and 
mourners. 

The master head of a really good undertaker will 
show itself in every small detail and appointment of a 
funeral pageant; the carriages will quietly form with- 
out confusion, and either receive or deliver their occu¬ 
pants without orders being vociferously shouted from 
one end to the other of the line ; everything will work 
without bluster or any noise which may grate harshly 
upon the ears of sorrow stricken friends or parents. 

On the contrary, how is it with one who is not a 
proficient ? His advent into the house of mourning is 
heralded by unusual bluster, and the often contradic¬ 
tory orders given to an assistant. Questions without 
number are asked from friends of the family or those 
present, about the time of the funeral, number of car¬ 
riages required, etc., inquiries which are altogether out 
of place at the time, and ought to be postponed until 





UNDERTAKING. 


9 


those having charge of the arrangements will make 
the wishes of the family known to the undertaker, at 
his office or place of business. 

Nervousness is manifest with some as soon as they 
commence handling a corpse, and is apparent through 
all the details of a funeral. Let any incident take 
place and everything is immediately thrown into 
hopeless confusion, as the undertaker himself feels 
more at fault than any one else. 

With others, again, a funeral is made a public display 
of their personal authority ; it is to them an occasion 
to conspicuously show in an ostentatious manner 
that the job is theirs ; the management of it in their 
hands; they intend to run it according to their notions, 
with the utmost disregard of anyone else’s wishes in 
the matter. The undertaker is, however, but a public 
servant; a well-bred man will not try to coerce peo¬ 
ple into following his own ideas in regard to certain 
matters and utterly disregard their views of the 
same. 

A direct conflict with the mourners in regard to 
some point of funeral etiquette will not place the un¬ 
dertaker in a very enviable position, whereas a sensible 
suggestion, deferentially offered to their better judg¬ 
ment, will win a ready assent and establish his 
reputation as a man thoroughly posted and well 
qualified for the business. Should the point be 
insisted upon by the family, and although it may be, 
in the undertaker’s opinion, a breach of established 
rules or customs, it is his duty to quietly submit and 


IO 


undertakers’ manual. 


thereby show his moral sense of the solemnity of the oc¬ 
casion, which is ill-timed for a controversy of any kind. « 

Some undertakers have been known to extol the 
cheapness of their wares in the house of mourning, 
drawing aside some of those present and stating con¬ 
fidentially that such a casket never was sold so low, and 
were it not for the particular regard they entertain for 
the family, the regular price would have been charged. 
This mode of philanthropic advertising has seldom 
brought any trade to the one that had resorted to it. 
The best advertising medium for an undertaker con¬ 
sists in the manner his business is carried on, in the 
style and appointments of his livery, and above all 
in his own deportment in public, the integrity of his 
character, and his punctuality in meeting his business 
engagements. 

As the assertion was made at the beginning of this 
chapter that every man cannot be an undertaker, the 
above enumerated qualities requisite to the make up 
of a first-class professional will prove conclusively 
that such is the case. 

Before fully entering upon the text forming the 
subject of this book, I have thought it advisable as an 
introduction, to stimulate the zeal of undertakers in 
self-improvement by illustrating, in brief outlines, the 
necessary qualities of a popular sexton and exposing 
per contra the faults others are guilty of. Let not, 
therefore, the reader accuse me of severe criticism, for 
my aim has been only to try and elevate our profession 
above its common standard. 


UNDERTAKING. 


I I 

That the duties of an undertaker require a larger 
quota of delicacy, tact, and knowledge of human 
nature than generally falls to the lot of most men, no 
one will deny; but it is also a well known fact that, 
unless he be the busiest professional in one of the 
largest cities, an undertaker has ample time for self- 
improvement and culture. 

It is high time the business of undertaking be truly, 
and really, raised to the rank of a profession ; let every 
undertaker be convinced that his calling is a solemn 
and responsible one, and our ranks will soon be free 
from the few interlopers who, so far, have impeded 
our progress toward a just recognition from the public 
for a class of men whose services are often very little 
short of self-sacrifice. 

The physician has an office of great responsibility 
thrust upon him ; into his hands we blindly confide 
the lives of relations and friends, hoping and expecting 
that his medical knowledge, his experience and skill, 
may save the existence of some one dear to us. 

And after science has been baffled and death claims 
his victim, the undertaker is the one to whom we look 
to perform the last sad duties. To him we intrust 
the care of the beloved remains, relying entirely upon 
his experience and good judgment in such matters, to 
carry out in a manner becoming to this age of Chris¬ 
tian feeling, the ceremonial of sepulture with the 
deferential respect due to the dead. 


EMBALMING. 


T has been a custom among ancient nations to pre¬ 
lim serve the bodies of the dead for a long period of 
time. Even to this day we find traces of it in the 
mummies of Egypt and the sarcophagi of Etruria. 
Their method of achieving this result may not have 
been strictly in accordance with the principles of 
modern science; certainly their success would hardly 
be satisfactory to the more refined taste of our gen¬ 
eration. Still their discoveries in this art have been 
such that they have commanded the respect of modern 
savants. They also show conclusively that the sciences 
of chemistry and physiology, even at that remote pe¬ 
riod, had attained a certain degree of prominence 
among their scientific men. Many of their discover¬ 
ies were no doubt accidental, still we must give 
them credit for the spirit of investigation which actu¬ 
ated their researches, and carried them on undaunted 
through the many disappointments they must certainly 
have encountered before they satisfactorily solved the 
problem. 

The imagination is carried back to the time when 
the mysterious worship of Osiris and Isis was flourish¬ 
ing on the banks of the river Nile, when the Sphinx 
uttered, or was thought to utter, the sacred oracles of 



EMBALMING. 


J 3 


Thormes, and before the pyramids had entombed a 
long generation of kings. 

A great number of persons cannot revert to the 
science of embalming without placing it among the 
lost arts; to them a mummy is the contemporary of a 
mysterious past dimly perceived through the long vista 
of succeeding generations; a tangible proof of that 
much vaunted ancient civilization, which as they ex¬ 
press regretfully will never be found again. A thor¬ 
ough elimination of the subject would convince those 
unsophisticated mourners that the loss is not quite an 
irreparable one. Let us divest a mummy of his bitu¬ 
men-coated and fire-scorched bandages; we will then 
have before us a mass of blackened and hardened 
cement-like substance, shrunken and emaciated to 
almost a skeleton, and bearing semblance to the form 
of a human organism, only so far as the shape of the 
osseous frame has retained its symmetry. The lips 
have shrunk apart so far as to expose the row of white 
teeth, the sockets of the eyes are empty, the cheek 
bones are prominent, the whole covered with patches 
of the dark and almost petrified epidermis. Such is 
the picture a mummy presents to our view when de¬ 
nuded of its envelope 

It is not to be wondered at, therefore, if some asso¬ 
ciate this repulsive image with the idea of modern 
embalming. Our present object in preparing bodies 
is two-fold : In the first place we desire to keep per¬ 
fect for a certain length of time the remains of those 
who have been dear to us while living; but when des- 


i4 


undertakers’ manual. 


iccation has begun, when the roundness of the lines 
loses itself into the more angular shrinkage of the 
tissues, then we may take, and without any feeling of 
horror, a last look at the body, and consign it, not to 
slow, foul corruption, but to the gradual drying of the 
organic substances, without the horrible accessions of 
decay and putrefaction. 

In view of all this, and with the help of modern 
chemistry, it is not singular that the art of embalming 
should have received a new impetus in this country 
and Europe, especially here, where it is customary to 
send back and over long distances the bodies of those 
that have died far from home. This usage has already 
brought about some astonishing results. The large 
majority of our first-class undertakers have taken the 
matter in hand ; they vie with each other in trying to 
perfect themselves in an art which is daily growing 
into favor. Almost every day a new antiseptic is, if 
not discovered, at least brought to exercise its func¬ 
tions in the preservation of organic substances. Of 
late, new methods have been inaugurated on all sides, 
and among the number there are certainly some which 
are deserving all the merits claimed for them. 

It behooves all professionals to exert their inge¬ 
nuity to bring this science to a satisfactory issue. 
Many of the preparations sold under the name of pre¬ 
serving liquid are good; others are not. How then 
are undertakers to discriminate ? By what means can 
the merits of the one, and the utter worthlessness of 
the other, be determined ? There is but one way, and 



EMBALMING. 


15 


that is an infallible one, of finding out the best method 
and preparation, and that is simply by experimenting, 
until the real means, which is the only true one, has 
been hit upon. 

It may also be objected to, with reason that a cer¬ 
tain process has been known to work effectually in 
some cases, whereas the same method employed in a 
similar manner has proved a signal failure in another 
instance. To this but one cause can be assigned, and 
that is the utter ignorance on the part of the operator 
of the properties, antiseptic and otherwise, of the ma¬ 
terials he is employing, also of the different conditions, 
which will according to existing circumstances modify 
their action and govern their effect. To use a certain 
preparation simply because it is highly recommended 
by some, without knowing the constituents thereof, is 
very little short of foolhardiness. How is it possible 
for the operator to employ it with discrimination and 
judgment? Should he be successful, well and good; 
the end would be obtained without he being the wiser 
for it. Should it be otherwise, and the result prove 
unsatisfactory, how is he to account for the failure, 
and how to guard against a repetition of the same in 
the future ? 

A good embalmer, one that really understands his 
business, does not have recourse to ready-made prep¬ 
arations for preserving bodies ; but he chooses the 
chemicals according to the properties each is known to 
possess. His experience of their relative actions teach 
him beforehand how they will work out the result he 


16 


undertakers’ manual. 


anticipated. I do not mean that every undertaker 
and embalmer should be an Orfila in regard to Chem¬ 
istry, nor is it expected that his knowledge of Anatomy 
should enable him to fill the chair of demonstrator 
in a dissecting room, but to achieve real, legitimate 
success, an embalmer ought, to possess a thorough 
knowledge of the drugs he is manipulating, their in¬ 
dividual effects, singly and collectively, and under 
different circumstances, upon subjects of different na¬ 
tures. A certain amount of the acquaintance with 
the anatomy of the human body is not only required, 
but strictly necessary; a gash of the knife upon some 
vessel of the arterial system might jeopardize the suc¬ 
cess of an otherwise satisfactory operation. 

It is this rudimentary knowledge of Physiological 
Chemistry and Anatomy we shall endeavor to explain 
in this book, with complete instructions upon the best 
methods which have been # heretofore and are now em¬ 
ployed in the preservation of bodies. 


THE LABORATORY. 

EFORE fully entering upon the subject of Em¬ 
balming, it may not be out of place to make 
mention of the room devoted to that purpose. 

As a general thing, undertakers will find it to their 
advantage to have set aside, either in the rear part 
of their store or at some other convenient point of 
the building, a room of moderate dimensions, exclu¬ 
sively for the purpose of preparing bodies. It may 
also be used either for the purpose of holding inquests, 
post mortem examinations, and as a morgue. 

Although the purpose for which it is intended, be 
that of a laboratory or room where the embalming of 
bodies may be carried on, undisturbed by the traffic 
of the warerooms or the office, it will be found useful 
for the above named objects. Very often physicians, 
who may be wanting to investigate the immediate 
cause of death in some of their patients, and who 
cannot prosecute the necessary investigations either 
in their own office or at the house of the deceased, 
will avail themselves, with pleasure, of the opportu¬ 
nity thus offered to them. The advantages of this 
arrangement to the undertaker are obvious and re¬ 
quire no explanation. 



undertakers’ manual. 


IS 


The room should be well ventilated and lighted, 
and everything so arranged as to be within reach; a 
sink with a water faucet should occupy a corner of 
the room ; in the center an embalming board, with 
longitudinal grooves, on trestles, the head elevated 
about a foot higher than the feet, so as to allow all 
liquids to run down and be collected in a pail at the 
lower extremity, without unnecessarily soiling the 
floor; a closet or cupboard for chemicals, which, by 
the way, ought always to be kept locked up. It is 
also necessary to keep a certain amount of the prep¬ 
aration used in daily practice, already mixed for use 
at a moment’s notice. The preceding recommenda¬ 
tion will prevent mistakes, and do away with the 
confusion generally attendant upon a hasty call. 

A very useful custom, and one that cannot be too 
highly praised, is that of keeping all needful articles 
for laying out and keeping a body, in a neat morocco 
satchel, which can be carried about in the hand with¬ 
out the least inconvenience. The contents should 
include all that is necessary to preserve bodies, say 
for five or six days, without the use of ice. The 
annexed list will furnish the explanation : 

Two sponges for washing purposes. They can be, 
when dry, kept in a very small compass; these should 
be thoroughly cleaned after using, and immediately 
returned to their place. 

A small post mortem case, containing a cartilage 
knife, two scalpels, one catheter, one pair scissors, 
chain and hooks, nippers, hook to raise arteries, and 
four crooked needles, assorted; also a skein of sur- 


THE LABORATORY. 19 

geon’s silk. These instruments should be carefully- 
cleaned before returning to the case. 

Two pint bottles containing antiseptic solution for 
injecting stomach and bowels. I have here men¬ 
tioned two pint bottles, in place of a quart bottle, for 
this reason: the two former are easier carried, less lia¬ 
ble to break, and thus more convenient than the latter. 

An eight - ounce vial, containing a concentrated 
solution for the complexion; it can be diluted to 
suit when using. 

Some cotton for stopping air passages and rectum. 

Two cups for collecting blood from the jugulars, 
should the veins be so congested as to require empty¬ 
ing of their contents. 

An eight-ounce, black rubber syringe, for inject¬ 
ing either the stomach, lungs or bowels ; this should 
be well cleansed after using, and also the leather 
forming the head of the plunger be saturated with 
glycerine ; it will keep it moist and free from getting 
sticky, which generally happens when oil is used for 
that purpose. 

A bottle of some pungent, aromatic, acidulated 
liquid, which will serve, not to absorb, but to dis¬ 
guise the smell, always more or less unpleasant, of a 
corpse.* 

An eight-ounce bottle containing tannic acid to 
dust in cavities of the thorax or abdomen before 
closing the wounds. 

* I have found by experience that vinaigre de bully, an imported toilet 
article, completely answers the purpose in th s case, when slightly sprinkled 
over the c!< thes of a corpse. 



20 


undertakers’ manual. 


And last, but not least, a one-ounce bottle of liquid 
muriate of ammonia, which is invaluable to cauterize 
any scratch, abrasion of the skin, or cut, on the hands 
of the operator while at work. 

I would here advise that some adhesive plaster be 
also a part of the contents. 

The following chapters on chemicals may be found, 
by some, dry and of no consequence; but to a sen¬ 
sible person, and a shrewd undertaker, it will be 
apparent that, unless possessed of some knowledge of 
physiological chemistry and morbid anatomy, it will 
be impossible for him to judge, with any degree of 
certainty, what means are to be employed to secure 
success in embalming. It will also be found, by the 
more enlightened mass of the profession, that a thor¬ 
ough examination of the causes of putrefaction and 
the means to counteract the same, are essential to a 
successful practice. 

How, then, can such means be resorted to ? How 
is it possible for an undertaker to prosecute the busi¬ 
ness of embalmer satisfactorily, if he has not in his 
hands all the information necessary to perform his 
labors, with credit to himself and satisfaction to his 
employers ? The only resource he has consists in the 
complete knowledge acquired from study and expe¬ 
rience, and the following chapters will pave the way 
to the desired result. 


DRUGS AND CHEMICALS. 


S it is of the utmost importance for the operator 
to get familiar with the drugs or chemicals he is 
called upon to handle, the history and proper¬ 
ties of each one will be detailed at length in the fol¬ 
lowing chapters : 


I s 


Acetic Acid .—The acid liquid distilled when char¬ 
coal is prepared from wood, in close cylinders without 
access of air, contains this valuable acid in a very 
impure state ; by subjecting this to further distillation 
the liquid is collected which is known as wood vinegar, 
or pyroligneous acid. By saturating this acid with 
lime, acetate of lime is produced, which by decompo¬ 
sition with sulphate of soda, furnishes sulphate of lime 
and acetate of soda; the latter salt being crystallized 
in a state of purity yields, by distillation with sulphuric 
acid, pure hydrated acetic acid in solution in water. 

Acetic acid is also produced by the oxydation of 
alcoholic liquids, especially cider and wine, and in 
this impure and diluted form is called vinegar. In 
chemical works it is generally classed among the 
derivatives cf alcohol. 


22 


undertakers’ manual. 


Camphorated Acetic Acid. —This is largely used as a 
pungent and refreshing perfume, to remove fetid odors 
from bodies. Take of 

Camphor, - half ounce, 

Acetic Acid, - - - 6 ^ fluid ounces. 

Pulverize the camphor by means of a few drops of 
alcohol and dissolve it in the acetic acid. 

Aromatic Vinegar. —This is another pungent and 
reviving perfume, formerly deemed a preventive of 
contagion, and which will be found very useful in 
removing foul smells from the chamber of death. 
Take of 

Camphor, 2 ounces, 

Alcohol, sufficient cpiantity to pulverize the 
Camphor, 

Oil of Cloves, - - 1 fluid ounce, 

Acetic Acid, very strong, 12 fluid ounces. 

Acetone, or Pyroacetic Spirit, and Pyroxilic Spirit, or 
Wood Naptha. —These are products of the distillation 
of wood, which are separated from the acid liquors 
after they are saturated with lime by simple distilla¬ 
tion and rectification. 

Owing to its cheapness, pyroxilic spirit has been 
extensively used in England, as a substitute for 
alcohol in the arts and manufactures. 

Uses of Crude Pyroligneous Acid. —This acid having 
been incidentally described as the source of the acetic 
acid of commerce, it may be proper in this place to 
notice its uses. It acts on the principle of an antisep- 


DRUGS AND CHEMICALS. 


2 3 


tic and a stimulant; the former property being chiefly 
due to the presence of creasote. 

Several cases in which it was successfully employed 
in the preservation of animal matter are reported by 
Dr. T. Y. Simmons, of Charleston, S. C. The crude 
acid has been so advantageously used for the above 
purpose that Mr. Wm. Ramsey was led to perform 
with it some very interesting experiments. Some 
fresh fish, simply dipped in the acid and afterwards 
dried in the shade, were effectually preserved, and 
when eaten, at the end of eight months, were found 
very agreeable to the taste. Fresh beef, dipped in the 
acid in summer for the space of a minute, was per¬ 
fectly sweet the following spring. 

Carbolic Acid , or Phenylic Acid .—It occurs in castor 
and the urine of many domestic animals. 

Coal tar is distilled, the product between 300° and 
400° is saturated with a strong solution of potassa, the 
oil is removed, the salt decomposed by muriatic acid ; 
the carbolic acid washed with water, dried with chlo¬ 
ride of calcium, rectified, cooled to about 12 0 F., the 
liquid decanted and the crystals quickly dried. It is 
in long colorless needles ; not very soluble in cold 
water; more so in hot water ; in all proportions in 
alcohol and ether; also soluble in concentrated acetic 
acid. 

Commercial Creasote .—When obtained from coal tar is 
always contaminated with phenylic acid (carbolic acid.) 
Indeed, it is said that phenylic acid has been sold 
for creasote, which it closely resembles in properties. 


24 


undertakers’ manual. 


How far these properties may be similar, deserves to 

t 

be studied ; for if they should prove to be the same, 
the fact would lead;to its substitution as a substance 
to be easily obtained pure, for the variable crea- 
sote. 

Of all the properties of creasote, the most remarkable 
is its power of preserving animal matter ; this property 
has suggested its name, derived from two Greek words 
which mean flesh preserver. Dr. Christison finds that 
creasote water is as good a preservative of anatomical 
preparations as alcohol, with the advantage of not 
hardening the parts ; it is probably to creasote that 
the antiseptic properties of pyroligneous acid are 
owing. 

Tannic Acid .—Some powder of nut galls is macer¬ 
ated in a bottle, with just enough ether to moisten it, 
for 24 hours, and then expressed in a powerful press; 
and the process of maceration and expulsion is 
repeated in the same way until the powder is 
exhausted ; the liquors are mixed, the ether distilled 
off, and the residue dried by means of a water bath. 

Properties : Pure tannic acid is solid, uncrystalliza- 
ble, white or slightly yellowish, inodorous; very 
soluble in water, and much less soluble in alcohol and 
ether, and insoluble in the fixed and volatile oils. 

Tannic acid precipitates solutions of starch, albu¬ 
men and gluten, and forms with gluten an insoluble 
compound which is the basis of leather. 

Chromic Acid .—To 100 parts, by measure, of cold 
saturated solution of bichromate of potassa, 150 parts 


DRUGS AND CHEMICALS. 


2 5 


of sulphuric acid are added and allowed to cool; the 
sulphuric acid unites with the potassa, and the 
chromic acid crystallized in deep red needles, very 
soluble and deliquescent. 

It is a powerful oxydizing and bleaching agent. 
Small animals, as mice, etc., after being immersed in 
the acid were so completely dissolved after 20 minutes, 
that no traces were left of either their claws, hair, 
bones or teeth. 

Sulphurous Acid. —It is prepared by exposing to 
heat a mixture of one part concentrated sulphuric 
acid with one part of mercury, or one-third part of 
copper filings, washing the gas by passing it through 
a little water, and condensing it in water which is well 
cooled. Professor Proctor directs the gas evolved 
from four ounces of copper turnings, and eight fluid 
ounces of sulphuric acid, to be condensed into four 
pints of water. 

Sulphurous acid is a gas which dissolves largely in 
water and has a smell of burning sulphur. 

Liquor Chlorinated Soda—Labarraque Disinfecting 
Solution. —It is prepared as follows : 

Chloride of Lime, - - 1 pound, 

Carbonate of Soda, - - 2 pounds, 

Water, ii gallons. 

Dissolve the carbonate of soda in 3 pints of water 
by the aid of heat; to the remainder of the water add, 
by small portions at a time, the chloride of lime, pre¬ 
viously well triturated, stirring the mixture after each 



26 


undertakers’ manual. 


addition ; set the mixture by for several hours that 
the drugs may subside, then decant the clear liquid 
and mix it with the solution of carbonate of soda. 
Lastly, decant the clear liquor from the precipitated 
carbonate of lime, pass it through a linen cloth and 
keep it in bottles secluded from the light. 

It is a colorless alkaline solution, having a faint 
odor of chlorine, and an alkaline taste ; it owes its 
antiseptic properties to containing hypoclorous acid 
which is readily liberated by the addition of even a 
weak acid and, on exposure to the air, by the absorp¬ 
tion of carbonic acid. 

One of its principal uses is to purify the air in 
dissecting rooms and hospitals, in which case it acts 
by decomposing sulphurated hydrogen, against which 
gas when inhaled, it is also an antidote. 

Nitrate of Lead .—Take of litharge 4-3- ounces ; 
dilute nitric acid one pint. Dissolve the litharge to 
saturation by the aid of a gentle heat; filter, and set 
the liquor aside to crystallize; concentrate the 
residual liquid to obtain more crystals. This is a 
beautiful white salt, of a sweet astringent taste and 
soluble in 7-J parts of water and in alcohol. It has 
recently been found useful in the correction of fetid 
odors, dependent upon the presence of sulphurated 
hydrogen or hydrosulphate of ammonia, which it 
decomposes. 

It will not prevent the putrefaction of animal mat¬ 
ter, but it will be found extremely useful, as a 
disinfectant of putrescent animal fluids. 


DRUGS AND CHEMICALS. 


2 7 


Ledoyen s Disinfecting Fluid —Which is greatly 
esteemed abroad, is a solution of this salt in water, 
in the proportion of two ounces of salt to one pint of 
water. 

Corrosive Sublvnate .—By the action of boiling sul¬ 
phuric acid on mercury, the hipersulphate is first 
formed. When this is heated with common salt 
mutual exchange takes place, and bichloride of 
mercury and sulphate of soda, the former of which 
sublimes are produced. Corrosive sublimate is in 
heavy, white crystalline masses, of a styptic and 
metallic taste, soluble in about 20 parts of cold water, 
much more so in alcohol. A solution of corrosive sub¬ 
limate precipitates albumen 'and forms with it a 
definite insoluble compound, to which property its 
use as an antiseptic is due. 

Corrosive sublimate has the property of retarding 
putrefaction. Animal matters immersed in its solu¬ 
tion shrink, acquire firmness, assume a white color, 
and become imputrescible. On account of this pro¬ 
perty it is usefully employed in preserving anatomical 
preparations. We have seen a head prepared in 
this manner which had for seven years resisted the 
attacks of decay and insects, and been subjected to 
all changes of temperature. 

Hyposulphite of Soda .—This salt may be economi¬ 
cally prepared by the following process : 16 ounces 

finely powdered carbonate of soda are mixed with 5 
ounces flowers of sulphur, and heated in a porcelain 
dish with constant agitation until it takes fire and 


28 


undertakers’ manual. 

burns to sulphite of soda; this is dissolved in water 
and boiled with sulphur and thus forms hyposulphite 
acid; it is then evaporated to crystallization. 

It is easily soluble in water ; the solution gradually 
deposits sulphur; i to 4 ounces dissolved in the 
necessary quantity of water, and with the subsequent 
addition of 3 fluid ounces of sulphuric acid for each 
ounce of the salt, will liberate the hyposulphurous 
acid, which immediately decomposes into sulphur and 
sulphurous acid. 

Solution of Chloride of Zinc —Made in the propor¬ 
tion of 1 ounce of chloride of zinc dissolved in 1 pint 
of water. It is a powerful deodorizing and disinfect¬ 
ing agent in neutralizing noxious effluvia and in 
arresting animal and vegetable decomposition. 

The concurrent^testimony of a number of observers 
shows that it acts as an excellent disinfectant for 
hospitals, dissecting rooms, etc. When injected into 
the blood vessels, it preserves bodies for dissection 
without injuring their texture. The advantage is 
claimed for it, that while it destroys putrid odors, it 
has no smell of its own. 

Alumina .—Dissolve alum in six times its weight of 
boiling water, add solution of carbonate of soda in 
slight excess, agitate for a few minutes, filter, and 
wash the precipitate with distilled water ; the product 
is hydrate of alumina. 

Acetate of Alumi?ia .—A solution of this salt is 
obtained by saturating acetic acid with hydrated 
alumina and cannot be evaporated without the loss of 


DRUGS AND CHEMICALS. 


2 9 


acetic acid. It has a faint smell of acetic acid and a 
sweetish taste, and possesses strong antiseptic pro¬ 
perties. 

Sulphate of Alumina .—Saturate diluted sulphuric 
acid with hydrated alumina, evaporate and crystallize ; 
it is in thin, flexible plates, of a pearly lustre, sweet 
and astringent taste; soluble in twice its weight of 
cold water, but not in alcohol. Its chief use is as an 
antiseptic ; a solution of 1 pound to a quart of water 
is used to preserve dead bodies ; as a lotion it may be 
used in a somewhat less concentrated form. 

The salts of alumina have been ascertained by Mr. 
Gannal to be powerful preservatives of animal matter. 
Among these the sulphate is to be preferred on 
account of its easy preparation and moderate price. 
Its aqueous solution was found by Mr. Gannal to be 
very effectual in preserving bodies, when injected into 
the blood vessels; in the summer season bodies were 
preserved for thirty days or more ; in the winter for 
three months. 

For use in the winter, a quantity of the solution 
sufficient for injecting one body, may be made by 
adding a pound, avoirdupois, of the salt to a quart of 
water ; for use in warm weather, the solution must be 
saturated. 


/ 


POST MORTEM EXAMINATIONS. 


EFORE commencing the work of embalming, 
and even while laying out a corpse, it is always 
necessary to make an inspection of the surface 
of the body. The minuteness of this inspection will 
depend upon the character of the case, and, in a great 
measure, dictate the course of treatment to be followed 
so as to insure success. It also behooves the operator, 
for his own safety, to look for evidences of skin dis¬ 
eases, ulcers, abscesses, etc.; the glands, penis and 
prepuce are to be carefully examined for syphilitic 
cicatrices. 

It is customary to find certain changes in the ex¬ 
ternal appearance of the body, which are due to the 
cessation of vitality in the tissues and the commence¬ 
ment of decomposition. I speak now of bodies which 
have not yet been buried, and which have been kept 
in the ordinary way, partly covered by a shroud, and 
lying on the back, in a loosely covered coffin. 

If the bodies have been left in their ordinary clothes, 
the appearances are just the same. In such bodies, 
one of the first noticeable changes is the paleness of 
the skin and its mottling with irregular livid patches. 



30 



POST MORTEM EXAMINATIONS. 


3 1 


After a short time the blood settles in the vessels of 
the more dependent portions of the body, and the 
skin which covers the back of the trunk and extremi¬ 
ties becomes of a livid red color. 

In many cases, if we cut through the skin, we find 
the tissues beneath congested and infiltrated with 
bloody scum; in bodies which have been kept for a 
number of days in cold weather, this red color is also 
seen on the anterior portions of the body, especially 
on the face and neck. In hot weather, the red color is 
very soon altered by decomposition; if the epidermis 
has been detached at any point, the skin beneath this 
is dry, hard and red. In warm weather, we may find, 
for a few hours after death, broad, bluish lines, cor¬ 
responding to the cutaneous veins, ramifying in the 
skin of the neck and thorax. These lines are formed 
by the escape of the coloring matter of the blood from 
the vessels. 

Within a few hours after death, even in cold weather, 
there is usually some escape of bloody froth and mu¬ 
cous from the mouth and nose. If the eyelids are 
not closed, the conjunctira and cornea soon become 
dry, brown and hard, the eyeballs also become flaccid. 
After a considerable time the skin of the abdomen 
becomes green; still later, decomposition fairly sets 
in. The entire body is of a dark green color; the 
tissues are infiltrated with serum, the abdomen is dis¬ 
tended with gas, then the color changes from a green 
to a reddish brown; the epidermis is detached ; the 
skin is covered with maggots; the entire body is 


32 undertakers’ manual. 

swollen from the formation of gases; the face can 
hardly be recognized; the nails drop off, and the scalp 
becomes detached. 

When a body is in this condition it can hardly be 
determined whether a month or five months have 
elapsed since death occurred. After this all the soft 
parts change into a formless, pustulent mass. The 
cavities are open, the viscera are indistinguishable, and 
the bones are left bare. 

The rapidity with which these changes take place, 
varies under the influence of a great number of con¬ 
ditions. The bodies of infants usually decompose 
more rapidly than those of adults; fat bodies putrefy 
quicker than lean ones; the bodies of persons who 
die suddenly from violence, decompose less rapidly 
than the average, unless the body be considerably man¬ 
gled. Exhausting diseases, fevers, and the puerperal 
condition, are followed by rapid decomposition, as is 
also death from suffocating gases. Poisoning by alco¬ 
hol, by arsenic, and by sulphuric acid, may preserve 
the bodies for an unusual length of time. Atmospheric 
air, moisture, and warmth, quicken decomposition. At 
the same temperature, a body which has been for one 
week in the air, one which has been two weeks in the 
water, and one which has been eight weeks buried in 
the usual way, will all exhibit the same degree of de¬ 
composition. 


POST MORTEM EXAMINATIONS. 


33 


THE RIGOR MORTIS. 

It is proper to notice whether or not the body is in 
the condition of post mortem rigidity. More atten¬ 
tion has, perhaps, been given to this post mortem con¬ 
dition than it well deserved. According to Kiihne, 
the rigor mortis is produced by a change in the mus¬ 
cular fibres ; the fibres first lose their contractibility, 
then there is coagulation of the myosine and loss of 
elasticity. When this acidity has reached its height, 
muscle becomes softer, and the rigor mortis gradually 
disappears; finally, the acid condition is succeeded by 
an alkaline fermentation, and decomposition ensues. 

The rigor mortis generally begins in the muscles of 
the lower jaw and back of the neck; it then extends 
to those of the face, neck, thorax, arms, and finally, 
the legs ; it usually disappears in the same order; it 
generally begins in from eight to twenty hours after 
death, but often much sooner. The bodies of persons 
killed on the field of battle, and of those who have 
been drowned, sometimes seem to be overtaken by 
the rigor mortis at the very instant of death; the 
bodies retain the same position, and the face the same 
expression, which they had in the last moments of life. 
The rigor mortis may continue for from one to ten 
days, generally, but not always; death from narcotic 
poisons is followed by a short and feeble rigidity. 
While death by lightning is followed by rapid and in¬ 
tense rigidity, in young children, it is feeble and of 
short duration. The degree and duration of rigor 


34 


undertakers’ manual. 


mortis after death from violence, from different dis¬ 
eases, etc., is stated so variedly and contradictorily by 
different observers, that no definite rides can be given 
concerning it. 

The temperature of the normal living body is 98° 
to 99 0 F. In illness, the temperature may be increased 
several degrees. After death, the body generally cools 
to the same point as the surrounding air; this is said 
to take place in from fifteen to twenty hours. 

Taylor, from the examination of one hundred bodies, 
states that the average heat of the skin of the abdo¬ 
men, at a period of two to three hours after death, is 
77 0 ; at four to six hours, 74 0 ; at six to eight hours, 
70° ; at twelve hours, 69°. The internal viscera retain 
their heat longer than the surface of the body. 

It is said, that, after sudden death from accidents, 
apoplexy, acute disease and asphyxia, the body re¬ 
tains its heat for an unusually long period. It is both 
asserted and denied, that after death from hemor¬ 
rhage the body cools rapidly ; the body of an adult 
cools more slowly than that of a child or an old per¬ 
son ; that of a fat person more slowly than that of a 
lean one. 

In some cases there is an exceptional retention and 
even an increase of heat in the dead body. Dr. John 
Davy reports, that in case of death from rheumatism, 
after the viscera had been exposed for several minutes, 
the temperature of the left ventricle of the heart was 
113 0 , and that of the liver 112 0 . In a second case, 
six hours after death, the temperature of the heart was 


POST MORTEM EXAMINATIONS. 


35 


108 . It is stated that after death from yellow fever 
and cholera, the temperature increases for several 
hours after death. There are also recorded a number 
of instances in which the body retained its heat for 
several days, without known cause. 

It will be seen from what has been said, that if we 
are called upon to pronounce upon the length of time 
that has elapsed since death, in a given case, this is 
only to be done approximately, and it is probably 
^necessary to take into consideration the cause and 
manner of death, the condition of the individual, the 
state of the atmosphere, the manner in which the body 
has been kept after death; and even after making 
these allowances, we can only say that a person has 
probably been dead for such and such a time. 

This chapter may prove tedious to some, but it is> 
however, an undeniable fact, that the preceding infor¬ 
mation (compiled from the Morbid Anatomy of F. 
Delafield, M. D.), is of the utmost importance to the 
professional undertaker. The external examination 
of the body, before handling, is a matter not to be 
neglected. Should any syphilitic sores or foul ulcers 
be present, the utmost caution must be used in hand¬ 
ling the body, as the pus, which is a most virulent 
poison, might find its way into the system through 
some abrasion of the skin. The effects of this poison 
are such, that, should it not prove fatal, it will leave 
in the system traces that can never be completely 
eradicated. This chapter also contains information 
of such character as will be found needful to fully 
understand the subsequent chapters. 


PRESERVATION OF BODIES. 


CT'HE following process is intended to preserve 
XT; bodies without the use of ice, merely until the 
time of the funeral may arrive. Sometimes, this 
ceremonial may be delayed for three or four days, or 
until some member of the family, who may be at some* 
distance, can arrive. It is also intended to take the 
place of the cumbrous refrigerator, and substitute 
for the labor of removing ice, carrying the box to and 
from the residence, the more simple and less laborious 
process of injecting the abdominal viscera. 

The first step to be taken upon arrival in the cham¬ 
ber of death, is to create a current of fresh air, by 
lowering the upper part of a window, or of a couple 
of them, if there be no transom light over the door. 

Next, remove the body from the bed and place it 
on a cooling board; this board ought to be elevated 
about one foot at the head ; also, the head of the body 
should be raised at an angle of about forty-five de¬ 
grees ; this disposition of the body will allow the 
fluids contained in the circulatory system to go down 
of their own gravitation, and leave the face, neck, and 
upper part of the body uncongested, and therefore 
free from the purple spots that gradually discolor the 
face and neck. 

36 



PRESERVATION OF BODIES. 


37 


The head is raised on the cooling board at the pro¬ 
per elevation as directed above, by means of a head 
rest attached to the cooling board, and provided with 
a catch resting on a cog scale, which allows the rest 
to be raised or lowered at will. 

The mouth must next be firmly closed by means of 
a ligature, tied firmly round the head and passed 
under the apex of the chin ; this ligature should be 
kept in place until the rigor mortis has firmly set the 
jaws together. 

A great improvement for the above purpose upon 
the old way of tying a cloth or a handkerchief round 
the head, is to use a band of some wide, elastic fabric, 
of which several sizes must be kept on hand, as when 
this ligature presses too tightly it leaves upon the face, 
especially on fat persons, unsightly wrinkles. 

The eyes must next be attended to; the lids must 
be brought together firmly, avoiding at the same time 
interference with tne lashes or the creation of wrinkles 
of the skin on the corners; then fold up neatly some 
small pieces of linen, well saturated in the following 
solution, which is also to be used to moisten the face 
with: 

Alum, 8 ounces ; Corrosive Sublimate, 2 ounces; 
Water, 1 gallon. 

The linen pads should not exceed the size of a 
quarter dollar, and thoroughly saturated in the above 
solution before applying to the eyes. The face, after 
washing with soap and water, should be well moistened 
with the same solution, and a cloth laid carefully and 


38 


undertakers’ manual. 


evenly over the features, so as to come into direct 
contact with every part of them ; this cloth must be 
kept moist with the above solution, and remain over 
the face until such time as the body is placed in the 
coffin, when the cloth may be removed previous to 
the lid being closed. This solution should be diluted 
with one-half water for use on children or persons 
whose skin is very fine. It must also be kept from a 
very strong light, in a glass bottle, and should, when 
used, never be mixed in a metallic vessel, but in a 
bowl, cup, or some dish of queens-ware or china. 

The next step to be taken consists in preventing 
frothing or purging from the mouth and nostrils; also 
keeping down generation of gases, and swelling of the 
stomach and bowels. 

For this purpose an incision about 4 or 5 inches in 
length is made in the abdomen, above the transverse 
arch of the colon; this incision will reveal the colon 
and upper part of the large intestines, also the stom¬ 
ach, a little to the left. 

If the bowels are distended with gas, puncture first 
the colon and some of the smaller intestines, and, 
after expelling the air by firmly pressing on the abdo¬ 
men, inject into the bowels about eight ounces of the 
following solution: Dissolve in one gallon of water 
as much alum as the water will take up, shaking at 
intervals; then pour off the clear liquor, and add to 
it two ounces chloride of zinc and two ounces corro¬ 
sive sublimate. Keep this injecting solution in a cool, 
dark place. 


PRESERVATION OF BODIES. 


39 


The bowels being injected, the stomach must be 
emptied of its contents by puncturing its walls, and 
by pressing gently upon its outer surface in a down¬ 
ward direction ; the matter contained in it will be 
forced out into the pleural cavity, and can then be 
either sponged or scooped out; the stomach is then 
to be injected in a similar manner as the bowels ; some 
of the injecting fluid may be then poured between the 
interstices of the bowels, about (6 or 8 ounces), and 
some cotton batting be laid evenly over the bowels; 
this cotton should be well saturated with the solution 
after it is properly laid in its place. The lips of the 
wound may then be neatly brought together and 
sewed up. 

It will be readily understood by the above de¬ 
scribed operation, that no gases can be generated in 
either the bowels or the stomach, as the injecting 
fluid in those parts of the viscera will effectually pre¬ 
vent their formation; and this being the case, the 
purging at the mouth and nostrils, which is the result 
of the escape of gas driving out the contents of the 
stomach, is avoided. The expansion of the abdominal 
viscera, or the bowels, is also prevented by the same 
cause. 

In some instances, when the body is that of a stout, 
fleshy person, or especially when some length of time 
has elapsed from the time of death until the under¬ 
taker has been called in, and particularly if the body 
has been reclining in a horizontal position, the face, 
neck and shoulders, will be found highly congested 


4 o 


undertakers' manual. 


with blood; the face, in fact, may be swelled and of a 
purple appearance, owing to the extravasation of 
blood into the capillary vessels under the skin. 

In such cases, and after the body has been removed 
and placed into a proper position on the cooling board, 
if the blood is not carried to some lower part of the 
body by its own graVitation, it may be found neces¬ 
sary to cut into the jugular veins on either side of the 
neck, an incision about one quarter of an inch in 
length ; through this opening the congested blood may 
be let out, and the face will soon recover its original 
color. This process, which occupies about twenty 
minutes, will be found preferable to the use of ice, 
especially when the corpse is at some distance from 
the undertaker’s place of business; or when it would 
be almost impracticable to carry a large and cum¬ 
brous ice box, besides the labor and bustle occasioned 
in the house of mourning by the carrying in and out 
of the box, ice, etc. 

It is also well understood that this process can not 
be applied where the corpse is that of a person who 
has died of some contagious or infectious disease. 
Besides the danger to the operator in this case, it is 
not customary to retain for any length of time the re¬ 
mains of those who may have died from the effects of 
an epidemic. 

To the solution for injecting, as given above, must 
be added one ounce of creosote to the gallon of liquid, 
when the preparation is to be used in warm weather. 


STATE OF BODY AFTER DEATH. 


T 

W the object of this book is to give, not only the 
nt best modes of preserving and embalming bodies, 

' I ^ but also to make comprehensive to our profes¬ 
sionals the modus operandi , it is a most important mat¬ 
ter to them that the different conditions of a body, as 
influenced by the cause of death, should be made a 
study of, and fully understood, before proceeding any 
farther. These different circumstances may so in¬ 
fluence the state of the body, that the process of 
embalming, as given hereafter and as usually prac¬ 
ticed, may not be successful. 

I repeat an assertion already made, that one body 
having been treated successfully in a certain manner, 
yet the same method may fail in another case. Al¬ 
though the same chemicals may have been used in 
both instances, and given full satisfaction in the first, 
they failed to accomplish their object in the last. 

It is a well known fact that the arterial system must 
be intact and without lesions, if the injecting fluid is 
to be carried in a thorough manner, and by the natural 
channels through the body—therefore any rupture in 
the arteries may cause the fluid to escape at that 
point, and fill the neighboring cavities. The result 


41 



4 2 undertakers’ manual. 

would certainly not in that case be satisfactory to 
the operator; for as the fluid would thus be arrested 
in its course, and fail to permeate the tissues through 
the arteries, veins and smaller vessels, the corpse would 
soon putrefy in consequence. 

Destructive inflammation of the surrounding tis¬ 
sues may invade and destroy the walls of an artery. 
Thus, ulceration of the brachia, bronchial glands, and 
oesophagus, may perforate the aorta; gangrene of the 
lungs, the pulmonary arteries, ulcer of the stomach, 
the gastric arteries, etc. 

Let us suppose that the operator chooses the fem¬ 
oral artery as a point of injection. The injecting fluid 
will fill the arteries of the abdomen and the thorax 
until it reaches a point where the walls of the arteries 
are ruptured, and then will lose itself into the sur¬ 
rounding cavities, thereby failing to reach the upper 
portion of the body. It will of course, in an instance 
of this kind, be found necessary to inject again at 
some other point situate in a higher part of the body, 
as for instance, the axillary artery. It is, therefore, 
easily understood that— 

ist. The cause of death may so affect the arterial 
system that the point selected for injecting may not 
be the proper one. 

2d. That it may be necessary to inject the body 
at different points. 

3d. That, in many cases, the cause of failure does 
not lay in the lack of antiseptic properties of the 
chemicals used, but in the need of discrimination on 


STATE OF BODY AFTER DEATH. 43 

the part of the embalmer, in choosing the proper place 
for injecting, and also in his ignorance of where that 
place should be. 

It is, therefore, patent, that should the course of the 
arteries and veins be not readily understood by the 
operator, it will be a rather hard matter for him to 
discover the cause of his failure. This want, we will 
try to supply in the following chapters, by giving in 
detail the course of the blood vessels, also of the dif¬ 
ferent positions of the several parts of the viscera, 
which it is necessary for the embalmer to be acquainted 
with, and which it is absolutely indispensable to know, 
so as to fully comprehend the instructions given fur¬ 
ther on in this book. 


i 


DEATH FROM POISONING. 


Sulphuric Acid .—There does not seem to be any 
JT) lesions of the arteries after death, as the stom¬ 
al ach is the only part which might be perforated, 
as also the adjoining viscera might be blackened and 
softened by the action of the acid. The blood is 
thickened, sirupy acid, and the body may be partially 
preserved from decomposition. 

Nitric Acia .—In this case the stomach will be found 
to contain a viscous, sanguinolent yellow or greenish 
fluid, which must be got rid of before injecting. The 
lungs will also be found highly congested, and the 
blood must therefore be emptied out. The acid, Ni¬ 
trate of Mercury, and Muriatic Acid, produce about 
the same changes after death as those of Nitric Acid. 

Oxalic Acid .—The stomach will be found to con¬ 
tain a dark, brown, mucous fluid, but in some cases 
of death from this poison there are no well marked 
lesions. 

Oxalate of Potash produces the same changes. 

Potash-Soda .—These alkalies and their carbonates 
are rarely used as poisons. Cicatrices and strictures 
of the oesophagus and stomach may be produced. 


44 


DEATH FROM POISONING. 


45 


Ammonia. —The vapor of strong ammonia may cause 
death from inflammation of the larynx and air passages. 
But the strong solution of Ammonia produces corro¬ 
sion of the mouth, oesophagus and stomach. 

Nitrate of Potash. —In some cases, there is intense 
congestion of the stomach, and sometimes perforation 
of that organ. 

Phosphorus. —The post mortem appearances vary 
with the length of time which lapses before death. If 
death takes place in a few hours, the only lesions are 
those produced by the direct action of the poison. 
The contents of the stomach, which must be evacu¬ 
ated, are often mixed with blood, and may have the 
peculiar smell of phosphorus. It is said that the mu¬ 
cous membrane of the stomach may emit a phosphor¬ 
escent light in the dark. If death does not ensue 
until after several days, the lesions are more marked; 
the body is usually jaundiced , and there may be 
found a congestion of the liver, or there may be a 
small hemorrhage in the liver tissue. 

Arsenir. —The stomach may be empty, or contain 
mucous mixed with blood, and the intestines contain 
a white, rice-water fluid, which must be emptied out. 

Corrosive Sublimate. —The stomach is usually con¬ 
tracted; there are inflamed and congested, sometimes 
gangrenous , patches of the mucous coat. The intes¬ 
tines may appear normal, or there may be patches of 
congestiop. In both preceding cases it must be borne 
in mind that the poison may be absorbed by the skin, 


4 6 


UNDERTAKERS* MANUAL. 


therefore the operator should use great care in manip¬ 
ulating the stomach and bowels. 

Vegetable Irritants .—Aloes, colocynth, jalap, gam¬ 
boge, scammony, savin, croton oil, colchicum, veratria, 
turpentine; all these drugs produce congestion and 
inflammation of the stomach and bowels. 

Sulphate of Copper — Verdigris. —The post mortem 
appearances have only been observed in a moderate 
number of cases; the stomach may be unchanged, or 
there may be patches of gangrene and inflammation, 
and even perforation. 

Tartar E??ietic. —In this instance the lesions are not 
constant, but the lungs may be engorged with blood. 

Opium. —The post mortem appearances of persons 
who have been killed by the preparations of opium, 
are negative. Intense congestion of the brain and 
lungs are spoken of by most authors, but they seem 
to depend chiefly on the way in which the patient dies, 
rather than on any specific action of the drug. 

Prussic Acid. —The skin is usually livid, and the 
muscles contracted ; the stomach is congested, and 
the veinous system unusually full of blood. The most 
characteristic condition, when this acid is present, is 
the odor of bitter almonds exhaled from the stomach 
and tissues. 

Alcohol. —The different preparations of alcohol may, 
when taken in large quantities, produce sudden coma 
and death. The bodies are said to resist decomposi¬ 
tion for an unusual length of time. There is conges- 


DEATH FROM POISONING. 


47 


tion, and sometimes extravasation of the blood in the 
brain ; the veins everywhere are full of blood, and the 
bladder distended with urine. Chronic alcoholic 
poisoning is of a different nature; in this latter case 
the brain appears normal, but the lungs are usually 
congested. 

Strychnia—Nux Vomica. —In cases of poisoning from 
these, the cramping and contraction of the muscles 
relax after death, but the brain is always congested 
with blood. 

Corium, Aconite, Belladona, Lobelia, Digitalis, Stra¬ 
monium, Veratrum. —All these poisons produce con¬ 
gestion of the brain, lungs and stomach. 

Carbo?iic Oxide. —This gas is produced from burning 
charcoal, and forms the poisonous ingredient of illu¬ 
minating gas. For post mortem appearances, see 
death from suffocation. 

Carbolic Acid. —A number of deaths from this poi¬ 
son have been reported in the last few years. In this 
case, the stomach, lungs and intestines are intensely 
congested. 

From Lightning. —In persons killed by lightning 
the internal viscera may be so lacerated and disor¬ 
ganized that the injection of the embalming fluid may 
be rendered impossible. 

Drowning. —Persons who have been drowned usually 
die from asphyxia. The lungs are generally congested, 
the stomach contains some of the fluid in which the 
person may have been drowned, and must be emptied. 


4 8 


undertakers’ manual. 


The abdominal viscera may also be congested, but the 
blood generally remains fluid throughout the body, 
and is easily removed. 

Strangulation .— In this instance the carotid arteries 
are generally ruptured; the heart, the lungs and the 
viscera, are usually congested. In death from suffo¬ 
cation the same symptoms are present. In cases of 
sunstroke, decomposition sets in very rapidly, and re¬ 
quires an immediate check; the lungs will frequently 
be found congested. 

Epidemic, Cerebro-SpinalMeningitis .—In many cases 
the skin of the body and face may show purpuric 
patches. The rigor mortis is pronounced and long 
continued, but decomposition sets in early. The in¬ 
testines may be swollen, and even ulcerated, and the 
lungs congested. 

The character of the disease almost precluded the 
idea of preserving the body after death. However, 
should the request be insisted upon, too many precau¬ 
tions cannot be taken, for the disease is of a virulent 
character. 


EMBALMING BODIES. 


^HE board generally employed to lay the body on 



I while the operation of embalming is being per- 


| formed resembles any ordinary cooling board 
with an adjustable head-rest, but it is also provided 
with a rim, extending all around, and raised about one 
inch above the level of the board; this rim stops at 
the foot, where the board remains open in all its 
width. There are also longitudinal grooves running 
the full length of the board. 

The usefulness of this arrangement is obvious, as 
the liquids which are used during the washing and 
embalming of the body run down the grooves—the 
board being raised at the head about one foot during 
the operation—and can easily be collected in a pail 
placed under the foot of the board. This will do 
away with soiling the floor or carpet, as is often the 
case with the common board in use. The rim around 
the board will also prevent any liquid from dripping 
over the sides, and will save a great deal of annoyance 
and trouble. 

The greatest precaution must be used by the oper¬ 
ator. All useless and unnecessary talk must be avoid¬ 
ed while at work ; the mind must be concentrated upon 


49 


5° 


undertakers’ manual. 


the work in hand. The knives, needles and other 
instruments must be carefully laid away on a stand 
within easy reach of the operator, and not be left laying 
about the board, under sponges, towels, etc.; these 
might be grasped thoughtlessly, and in doing so a 
gash might be inflicted, which, if not fatal, at all 
events would certainly prove very serious. 

Before commencing the operation, and after the 
body has been thoroughly cleansed with soap and 
water, let the operator anoint and rub his hands with 
either lard or sweet oil; not so much so as to soil 
any article used, but let a vigorous rubbing force 
the oil into the pores of the skin until the hands are 
almost dry. 

The eyes and the mouth being carefully closed by 
the usual means, let the body be well saturated with 
the following solution: 

Sulphate alumina, - - 2 lbs. 

Corrosive sublimate, 2 ounces. 

Water, - - - - 1 gallon. 

A cloth moistened with this solution may be laid 
on the face, and remain while the operation is being 
performed. This solution should not be wiped off, 
but it should be allowed to dry on the body; the 
water will evaporate and leave behind it a thin coat¬ 
ing of the salts, which by penetrating the pores of 
the skin will render it imputrescible. 

Next, an incision about five or six inches in length 
is cut transversely from right to left in the abdominal 


EMBALMING BODIES. 


51 


region, over the stomach, about one inch in a line below 
the curvature of the lower ribs. Through this open¬ 
ing is revealed the stomach on the right, the liver and 
gall bladder on the left, the transverse arch of the 
colon in front, and below the smaller intestines. 

If the stomach is distended with food or gas, it 
must in all cases be emptied of its contents and 
injected. For this purpose, puncture the walls of the 
stomach on the side exposed to view, and passing the 
left hand gently between that organ and the ribs, 
press down, so as to force the contents out and 
through the opening made. Then, after the stomach is 
completely emptied, inject with the following solution, 
which we shall designate, for the sake of avoiding 
mistakes, by the name of 

EMBALMING FLUID. 

Corrosive sublimate, - - -2 ounces. 

Chloride of zinc, 4 “ 

Creasote, - - - - - 4 “ 

Alcohol, 1 gallon. 

The chloride of zinc and corrosive sublimate must be 
first dissolved in the alcohol, and the creasote then 
added. 

The small intestines must then be gently and care¬ 
fully drawn out, and allowed to lay on the right side 
of the abdomen; this will reveal in the abdominal 
region a cavity, which may or may not be filled with 
serum, according to circumstances. At any rate, 


52 UNDERTAKERS* MANUAL. 

N 

should there be any liquid, it must be carefully 
pumped out or sponged off until perfectly dry. 

The cavity is then to be sprinkled heavily with 
tannic acid. The small intestines must then, and 
before being replaced, be next attended to. If in¬ 
flated with nothing but gas, a simple puncture at 
different points, so as to favor the escape of the gas, 
and a moderate injection through the aperture, will 
suffice. 

If, however, the intestine should be found congested 
with blood, or some other substance, the contents 
must be emptied by the following method: Seize 
firmly, between the two forefingers of the left hand, 
the intestine, at the lowest point you can reach, and 
with the right hand draw the intestine through the 
fingers of the left; this will have the effect of forcing 
the contents of the intestine forward in front of the 
fingers of the left hand. After the matter has so 
accumulated that the progress is impeded, the intes¬ 
tine must be cut, the matter extracted, the part which 
has thus been emptied, injected with the embalming 
fluid, and then tied up. This operation must be 
repeated until the whole of the intestines, small and 
large, have been emptied and injected, and then the 
whole is to be replaced into the cavity. 

About four ounces of the embalming fluid must be 
poured over the intestines, and the wound neatly 
sewed together. 

It may be found necessary before closing>the open¬ 
ing to lay a thickness of cotton batting over the 
bowels and under the walls of the abdomen. 


EMBALMING BODIES. 


53 


Should the lungs be congested with blood, they 
must be emptied. This object maybe attained either 
by pressing upon the lower part of the thorax, which 
will have the effect of forcing the blood out through 
the nostrils and mouth; or else the diaphragm separ¬ 
ating the thoracic cavity from the abdomen may be 
cu* - through, and the extravasated blood can therefore 
be got out through the opening. The injection of the 
thoracic cavity can also be performed through the 
same opening. The utmost caution must be used in 
perforating the diaphragm, as some of the arteries 
might be wounded by a careless use of the knife. 

The above operation may be performed before clos¬ 
ing the wound in the abdomen or replacing the 
intestine into the cavity, as it will then leave more 
room to collect the fluid which may escape from the 
lungs. 

The lungs should in all cases be well injected^ 
either through the trachea or by the process given 
above. The air passages must be carefully stopped 
with cotton. The mouth being closed, the nostrils 
are about the only air passages which require the 
attention of the operator. The eyes, after a few days, 
are liable to sink in the sockets, which gives the body 
an unnatural appearance. Mr. John C. Rulon, of 
Philadelphia, has invented a wax shell, which, after 
being introduced under the eyelids, prevents the sink¬ 
ing of the eyes. 

The arterial system is to be injected, and next 
requires attention. Before commencing to inject the 


54 


undertakers’ manual. 


arteries, the jugular vein on the left side of the neck 
must be punctured so as to allow the blood to escape. 
In some subjects, the flow of blood will be very- 
copious, in which instance the jugular veins must be 
opened on both sides of the neck; at other times the 
flow of blood will be very limited, and even the 
opening of the veins has sometimes been found quite 
unnecessary. 

The femoral artery is the vessel generally chosen 
for injecting, at a point below the arch about eight 
inches from and below Poupart’s Ligament. After 
the artery has been raised, a small incision is punc¬ 
tured into the coat of the artery, large enough to 
admit the nozzle of the injector, and the canula is 
carefully pushed upwards into it as far as its length 
will allow; the artery is then safely and firmly fastened 
around it, and everything is then ready for injecting. 

On the mode of injecting depends, in a great meas¬ 
ure, the success of the operation. With some of the 
instruments now employed, the pressure of the inject¬ 
ing fluid is so strong and sudden as in some instances 
to rupture the walls of the arteries at some weak 
point, and fill the cavaties of the thorax and abdomen; 
sometimes even the liquid has been forced in with 
such force and in such quantities as to burst the 
arteries, and, after filling the chest, to pour out in a 
stream from the mouth and nostrils. 

In the above instances, it stands to reason that 
neither the arterial nor venous systems have been 
properly injected. 


EMBALMING BODIES. 


55 


The injection should be performed in a slow, regu¬ 
lar manner. After a quart of the embalming fluid 
(the composition of which has been given above) has 
been injected, the operation should be suspended for 
about ten minutes, after which it should be renewed 
in the same manner, until a gallon and a half or two 
gallons have been injected. Sometimes the quantity 
injected need not be so great, as for instance in the 
case of a person much emaciated by long illness, or if 
the subject be a child. 

The jugular veins must be kept open so long as the 
flow of blood continues, but they must be closed as 
soon as the embalming fluid makes its appearance. 
The best manner of closing the veins is by introducing 
into the jugulars a small pad of cotton, and neatly 
sewing up the opening. 

It should be remembered that the cloth moistened 
with the solution for the face should be kept on, well 
saturated, while this operation is being performed, 
and even for a few hours after the body has been 
dressed. 

A body prepared in this manner has been kept, in 
a wooden coffin, in a dark and moderately cool place, 
for the space of nine months without any perceptible 
change. After that time the shrinking of the tissues 
took place, and the body was slowly drying up and 
being desiccated without in the least decaying or 
putrefying. 


THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 



O understand thoroughly the process of embalm- 
j ing as described in the preceding chapter, it 
will be necessary to give here a brief explana¬ 
tion of the circulatory system; also to explain the 
position of the different parts of the viscera, to which 
reference has been made. 


The arteries commence from the great arterial trunk, 
called the aorta, and their branches are distributed to 
all parts of the system; they are dense in structure, 
and preserve for the most part their cylindrical form 
when emptied of their blood, which is their condition 

«r 

after death. 

The aorta arises from the left ventricule, at the 
middle of the root of the heart; it ascends at first for¬ 
wards and to the right, then curves backwards and to 
the left, and descends on the left side of tile vertebral 
column, to the fourth lumbar vertebra; here it is di¬ 
vided into the arch and descending aorta. 

It should be here remembered that most of the 
branches, which spring from the great artery and vein, 
are double, that is, each right branch has a correspond¬ 
ing one on the left side—so that there are, for instance, 

56 



THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 


57 


the right and left carotid arteries, the right and left 
jugular veins, etc. From the arch of the aorta are 
sent off those arteries which are distributed to the 
head and arms ; the principal ones among these are 
named as follows: 

The carotid artery, which ascends in the side of the 
neck and divides into the temporal artery which is 
distributed in the temple, and the facial artery which 
supplies the face, and also sends a branch called the 
internal carotid to the parts within the skull. The 
sub-clavian artery, lying beneath the clavicle, or collar 
bone—that part of the continuation of this artery 
which passes through the axilla or arm-pit, is called 
the axillary artery; its continuation in the upper part 
of the arm, the brachial artery; and in the fore-arm 
it divides into the radial and ulnar arteries, which are 
distributed to the hands and fingers. 

The principal branches of the descending aorta are 
as follows : 

The iliac artery, which on passing into the thigh 
becomes the femoral artery, and, in the leg divides into 
the tibial and peroneal arteries, which form numerous 
branches for the supply of the leg and foot. 

Before dividing into the iliac arteries the descend¬ 
ing aorta gives off several important branches, as the 
cceliac artery, from which the stomach and liver are 
supplied; the renal artery, which goes to the kidneys, 

and the mesenteric artery to the intestines; besides 

% 

many other sub-divisions in various parts of its course. 


5 « 


undertakers' manual. 


THE VEINS. 

The veins are the vessels which return the blood to 
the heart, after it has been circulated by the arteries 
through the different tissues of the body; they are 
much thinner in structure than the arteries, so that 
when emptied of their blood they become flattened 
and collapsed. 

The veins of the trunk may be divided into, the 
superior vena cava, with its formative branches, and 
the inferior vena cava with its formative branches. 

The superior vena cava is formed by the junction 
of the right and left vena innominata; it is a short 
trunk about three inches in length ; it descends per¬ 
pendicularly on the right side of the arch of the aorta, 
and terminates in the upper part of the right auricle 
of the heart. The right vena innominata receives the 
veins of the neck, which return the blood from the 
head as follows: The internal, external and anterior 
jugular veins—the external jugular vein being the one 
which is ordinarily open to let out the extravasated 
blood from the head—it will not be amiss to describe 
its course; it descends the neck in the direction of a 
line drawn from the angle of the lower jaw to the 
middle of the clavicle or collar bone, and terminates 
into the sub-clavian vein; it is variable in size, and 
replaced by two veins. The sub-clavian vein becomes 
the axillary vein near the arm-pit, and opens into the 
brachial veins down to the bend of the elbow, where 
it is divided into several branches which supply the 
fore-arm and the hand. 


THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 


59 


The inferior vena cava is formed by the union of 
the two common iliac veins; it ascends along the 
front of the vertebral column or back bone, and, pass¬ 
ing through the fissure in the posterior border of the 
liver, terminates into the inferior part of the right 
auricle of the heart. Its branches are the lumbar 
veins, three or four in number, which collect the 
blood from the muscles and integuments of the loins 
and spinal veins; the renaTveins, which return the 
blood from the kidneys, 4nd the hepatic veins in the 
liver. 

The common iliac veins, which, by their union 
form the inferior vena cava, are in turn formed by the 
union of the internal and external iliac veins; the 
external iliac vein passing into the thigh becomes the 
femoral vein, and is found in the same sheath with 
the femoral artery ; further below it becomes the pop¬ 
liteal vein ; about one inch and a half below Poupart’s 
ligament in the upper part of the thigh, the femoral 
vein receives the internal saphenous vein, which com¬ 
mences at the inner side of the foot and great toe; it 
ascends in front of the inner ankle and along the 
inner side of the leg ; it then passes behind, and along 
the inner side of the thigh to the saphenous opening, 
where it pierces the sheath of the femoral vessels and 
terminates as above stated, in the femoral vein. 

The above explanation of the circulatory blood 
vessels is given only for one side of the body—the 
right side. The other vessels branching off from the 
two great trunks, the aorta and the vena cava, on the 
left side are the same, with very slight modifications. 


6 o 


undertakers’ manual. 


DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

The oesophagus is a slightly flexuous canal, inclin¬ 
ing to the left in the neck, to the right in the upper 
part of the thorax; it commences at the termination 
of the pharynx, which is a musculo-membranous sac, 
about four inches in length, and communicating with 
the cavity of the nose and mouth ; the oesophagus 
then passes behind the arch of the aorta to the oeso- 
phagal opening in the diaphragm, where it enters the 
abdomen, and terminates into the stomach. 

The stomach in man is an oblong, membranous 
bag, placed’ obliquely across the abdomen and just 
below the diaphragm; its average capacity in the 
adult is about one quart; it has two openings, one 
towards the heart called the cardiac orifice , which re¬ 
ceives the food from the oesophagus, and the other at 
the right or small end of the stomach, called the pyloric 
orifice, for the transmission of food to the small intes¬ 
tines. 

The small intestines, about twenty-five feet in 
length, are coiled in various directions, and terminate 
into the large intestine, called the colon, which is 
about five feet in length, and resembles in appearance 
a long sac divided into numerous pouches. 

The pancreas is a long narrow gland, situated partly 
behind the right side of the stomach, and within the 
first curve of the small intestine. 

The liver is the largest gland in the body; it is 
situated on the right side, below, and in contact with 


THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 61 

the diaphragm, and is divided into several lobes. At 
its lower side is the gall bladder, into which the bile 
is poured after being secreted. Its duct opens into a 
duct leading direct from the liver, and forms with it 
the common bile duct, through which the bile is 
poured into the small intestine, at the same point 
with the duct from the pancreas, until, at length, it is 
carried with the food into the larger intestine or colon, 
from whence it is excreted from the system, through 
the rectum. 

ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 

The lungs are supplied with air through the larynx 
and the trachea. 

The larynx is an irregular cartilaginous tube, form¬ 
ing the upper part of the windpipe, as the whole tube 
is commonly called. 

The larynx is situated immediately below the root 
of the tongue, and forms the protuberance in the front 
part of the neck, called Adam’s apple. 

The trachea, which is a continuation of the larynx, 
is composed of about eighteen cartilaginous rings, 
connected together so as to form a tube, which is 
capable of maintaining a uniform size. On entering 
the chest, the trachea divides into two trunks, called 
bronchi, one of which goes to the right, and the other 
to the left, lung. As soon as the bronchi enters the 
lungs they branch off into numerous divisions and 
sub-divisions ; their ultimate extremities terminate in 
air cells. 


6 2 


undertakers’ manual. 


The lungs occupy the greater part of the chest, the 
heart being the only organ of much volume, which it 
includes in it. 

The chest, or thorax, is a cavity closed on all sides 
from the entrance of air, and its bony walls afford an 
admirable protection to the delicate organs included 
within it. The walls of the thorax are formed by the 
breast-bone in front, by the ribs and spine on the 
sides and back, and by the diaphragm below. 

The diaphragm, as has been stated in a previous 
part of this chapter, is a large muscular partition, 
which separates the chest from the abdomen. 

The explanations given in this chapter upon the 
arterial and venous circulation, also upon the names, 
places and relations of the abdominal and thoracic 
viscera, will be found of the utmost importance, to 
understand fully the process of embalming already 
given, and also the other methods which will be stated 
hereafter. 

Although briefly enunciated, this review of the 
anatomy of the parts of the human body, which the 
embalmer must be conversant with, will be found 
quite sufficient for the purpose. 

It will be seen, that even after the arterial and ven¬ 
ous systems have been properly injected, there still 
remains a prolific source of putrefaction in the liquids 
contained in the intestines, and the thoracic viscera ; 
for instance, the fecal matter contained in the intes¬ 
tines, and the undigested food in the stomach at the 


THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 


6 3 


time of death, must all be evacuated, and the organs 
containing them properly cleaned and injected, and 
unless this be done fermentation will set in, and be 
followed by rapid decay of the surrounding tissues. 
It is true the arteries and veins extend their branches 
to all parts, and to every organ of the body but it is 
also an undeniable fact that the contents of those 
organs which are prone to putrefy will carry the infec¬ 
tion to the vessels containing them. 

The stomach and bowels are emptied of their con¬ 
tents for the mere reason that these same contents are 
already undergoing a process of fermentation, which 
will generate into rapid decay and the emission of 
noxious gases. 

In certain cases of consumption, the lungs are gan¬ 
grenous and decayed long before death takes place ; 
it will then be found necessary to introduce through 
the trachea some antiseptic fluid which will stop the 
progress of decay. 

It is also necessary that the names of the different 
organs mentioned in this work should be explained, 
so as to make the use of technical words comprehen¬ 
sive to every undertaker who is not supposed to be 
familiar with the terms of the dissecting room or the 
human organism in general. 

Besides the knowledge of the information given in 
the preceding pages will enable the embalmer to fol¬ 
low the workings of the embalming process in all its 
details, and enable him to discover the causes of fail¬ 
ure in certain cases ; also to use the proper means in 
the achievement of success. 


ANIMAL MATTER. 


PRESERVATION AND PUTREFACTION. 


cjJyrom the great complexity of the composition of 
TW animal substances, their decomposition is more 
I rapid and its products more diverse than in the 
case of organic bodies of vegetable origin. While 
the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen give origin to the 
various kinds of ulmine and other substances of the 
same class, the nitrogen is generally valued as am¬ 
monia, and the sulphur as sulphurated hydrogen. It 
is the presence of these bodies that give to the putre¬ 
fying substances the disagreeable odors by which 
that process is distinguished from mere mouldering 
and rotting. 


Even during life, the constituent particles of the 
body are in a continual state of change, being ab¬ 
sorbed and thrown out of the system, while others 
are assimilated in their place. Any part of our 
constituents, liquid or solid, which become unfitted 
for this vital function, is thereby killed, and must, if 
not got rid of, induce the death of the individual. 

Hence, precisely the same means which give to the 

64 


ANIMAL MATTER. 


6 5 

animal substances the fixity of constitution which 
belongs to true chemical compounds, and thus pre¬ 
serve them from decomposition by the disturbing 
action of their own elements (as when we coagulate 
albumen by an acid, by corrosive sublimate, or by 
sulphate of copper), produce if applied to the living 
body the death of the part or the whole being by 
depriving the blood or the tissue of the mutability of 
constitution, which is required for the functions of the 
animal frame. 

It is thus that the generality of metallic poisons act 
in producing death. Being absorbed into the system, 
they unite with the albumen and fibrine of the blood, 
and converting them into the insoluble compounds 
which we form in the laboratory, unfit them for the 
continual absorption and secretive offices, which, as 
organs, while they live they must fulfill. If the injury 
be local and limited in extent, the part so coagulated 
may be thrown off, and after a certain time the func¬ 
tions return to their proper order. If the mass, or the 
importance of the affected parts be greater, the 
system cannot so get rid of the portions which have 
thus been removed from the agency of life, to submit 
to merely chemical laws ; on the contrary, the vital 
powers of the remaining portions of the animal are so 
much weakened in the effort that general death is 
caused. 

For putrefaction it is thus necessary: ist. That 
the force of vitality which governs so completely the 
mere chemical tendencies of the elements of our 
tissues be removed. 


66 


UNDERTAKERS MANUAL. 


2d. That there shall not be present any powerful 
chemical reagent with which the organized material 
matter may enter into combination and thus the divel- 
lent tendencies of the affinities of its elements be 
overcome. 

3d. That water be present in order to give the 
necessary mobility. 

4th. That oxygen be present, or at least some other 
gas into the space occupied by which the gaseous 
products may be diffused ; and lastly, that the tem¬ 
perature shall be within moderate limits, putrefaction 
being impossible below 32 0 or above 182°. 

The agency of the first of these preventive powers 
need not be further noticed. The second is exten¬ 
sively employed for embalming purposes, and in the 
preparation of bodies for anatomical studies, by baths, 
or injections into the arteries of solutions of corro¬ 
sive sublimate, acetate of alumina, sulphate of iron, 
tannin, wood vinegar, and creasote; this last body, 
however, does not appear to act by direct combina¬ 
tion, but by the complete (catalytic) coagulation it 
produces in all the tissues of the body that have pro¬ 
tein for their base. 

The necessity for the presence of water is shown 
by the fact that by drying the animal substances they 
are completely preserved. It is thus that the bodies 
of those perishing in the Arabian deserts are re¬ 
covered years subsequently, dried, but completely 
fresh. 




ANIMAL MATTER. 


67 


Alcohol and common salt both act in the preserva- 
vation of bodies by their affinity for water. If a 
piece of flesh is covered with salt, the water gradually 
passes from the pores of the flesh, and dissolving the 
salt forms a brine, which does not wet the flesh, but 
trickles off its surface ; the water necessary for putre¬ 
faction is thus removed 

Fourth, by excluding oxygen, the putrefactive 
process is retarded, precisely as the fermentative 
action of the gluten in grape juice cannot begin until 
a certain quantity of oxygen be absorbed. It is thus 
that meat that is sealed up in close vessels and then 
boiled for a moment is preserved ; the small quantity 
of oxygen of the air remaining then in the vessel is 
absorbed, and the produce of that minute change 
being coagulated by heat it cannot proceed farther. 

A high temperature stops putrefaction by coagulat¬ 
ing the azotized materials ; a temperature below 32 0 
by freezing the water acts as if the tissues had been 
dried; in both cases putrefaction is arrested. 

During putrefaction, at a stage prior to any fetid 
gas being evolved, a peculiar organic substance is 
generated, possessed of intensely poisonous properties , 
and the blood of perso?is who have died from its effects is 
found to be quite disorganized and irritating when 
applied to wounds. 

This and the blood of over-driven cattle are found 
to produce effects similar to those of venomous rep¬ 
tiles, and the wounds received in dissection are 
sometimes followed by similar fatal consequences. 


68 


undertakers’ manual. 


The communication of disease in this way has 
recently been very ingeniously ascribed by Liebig to 
the general principle of the communication of decom¬ 
position by contact. 

The small quantity of diseased organic matter 
originally introduced into the system by absorption, 
acts as a ferment and reproduces itself in the mass of 
the blood, until this becomes unfitted for the perform¬ 
ance of its functions and the animal is killed ; the 
active principle being thus copiously present, is 
exuded from the skin and lungs and gives a conta¬ 
gious character to the disease, or it remains only in the 
blood, or is secreted in pustules, constituting infection, 
by which the disease may be communicated to some 
other person. 

This brief enumeration of the process of putrefac¬ 
tion will, to a certain extent, elucidate the process of 
embalming given in this book; it shows that the dif¬ 
ferent methods herein explained, fulfill the conditions 
necessary to stop the progress of decomposition. 

A most important point, and one which ought not 
to be passed upon without serious consideration is, 
the communication of disease by contact and absorp¬ 
tion. 

In a former part of this work, it has been suggested 
that too much care cannot be used in handling the 
bodies of persons who have died of certain diseases, 
especially when their bodies are to be subjected to 
the embalming process, which operation is rendered 
extremely dangerous to the embalmer from the fact 


ANIMAL MATTER. 


69 


that the hands must, perforce, come into direct con¬ 
tact with the denuded tissues, the blood, or some 
vitiated secretion of the body. 

We shall, in the following chapter, find instances 
when the decomposition of certain parts of the body 
has taken place even before death. It is obvious that 
in such cases the utmost caution is necessary to avoid 
serious results. 


THROMBOSIS AND EMBOLISM. 


rfe OMETIMES during life, some portion of the body 
is in a condition of gangrene, that is, the tissues 
W are not only dead, but decomposing. With the 
evolution of gases, the softening and liquefaction of 
the solid parts, and the development of minute or¬ 
ganisms, either animal or vegetable. 

The bodies of persons who have died from such 
causes, decompose with unusual 7 ‘apidity. The inner 
coats of the vessels are often stained with the color¬ 
ing matter of the blood. The viscera are soft and 
flabby, the stomach may be swollen, and the kidneys 
congested and degenerated. 

People who have suppurating wounds or abscesses 
may, without much change in the wounds or abscesses, 
be seized with rigors followed by fever, become 
jaundiced and die. 

In such persons after death, the same tendency to 
rapid decomposition, and all the symptoms of the 
preceding cases are to be found. 

There is no way of accounting for the rapid decay 
in the preceding cases, except by supposing that the 
pus from the original wound or abscess in some way 
infects the system, and renders the tissues prone to 
putrefy. 


70 


THROMBOSIS AND EMBOLISM. 


71 


There is another modified condition of the body 
very different from the two preceding. Either in 
consequence of wounds, injuries, inflammations, ab¬ 
normal conditions of the system, or changes in the 
venous walls, the blood may become coagulated dur¬ 
ing life and form thrombi in the veins. 

These thrombi may become organized, or they may 
soften, break down, and their fragments be carried 
into the circulation ; by their mechanical action in 
obstructing the vessels, they produce extravasation 
of blood. 

By the irritative character of the thrombi them¬ 
selves, they excite inflammatory action in the 
adjoining tissues; in this way are produced multiple 
abscesses. Therefore, we find in persons who die 
under such conditions, abscesses in the brain, heart, 
lungs, kidneys and intestines ; further we may find 
purulent inflammation and abscesses in the connec¬ 
tive tissues. 

It is now necessary to explain the nature and com¬ 
position of both the thrombus and embolus, and how, 
through their mechanical agency, the process of 
embalming may become seriously impaired, if not 
altogether arrested. A thrombus is a clot, composed 
principally of the fibrine of the blood, formed during 
life in the cavities of the heart, the arteries, the veins, 
or the capillaries. 

An embolus is a solid body, usually a portion of a 
thrombus, carried by the blood current into some 
artery or capillary, and becomes fixed there. A 


7 2 


undertakers’ manual. 


thrombus may entirely fill the cavity of a vessel, or it 
may only form a layer on its wall, or it may project 
from a smaller vessel into a larger one. 

An embolus may completely or only partly plug up 
a vessel; it may remain alone or a thrombus may be 
formed around it. 

A thrombus may merely Decome harder and whiter 
in time, or it may become organized, or it may de¬ 
generate, soften, and change into a mass of puriform 
fluid and gangrenous looking fibrine , or it may calcify. 

The production of thrombi is due to various causes. 

(i.) Spontaneous thrombi are produced by any 
cause which seriously weakens the whole system, as 
old age and chronic exhaustive diseases. They are 
usually formed in the veins of the lower limbs and 
pelvis, and in the sinuses of the dura mater. 

(2.) Compression of the vessels by ligatures, 
tumors, dislocated bones, and inflammatory exuda¬ 
tion. Pneumonia may produce thrombosis of the pul¬ 
monary veins. Phthisis may produce thrombosis of the 
pulmonary arteries. 

(3.) Thrombi may form into capillaries or small 
veins, and increase until they project into larger 
veins. 

(4.) It may also form when there is inflammation, 
especially of a gangrenous and suppurative nature, in 
the parts around a vessel. 

The causes of embolism are also various. 

(1.) Fragments of thrombi in the veins are the 
most frequent material of emboli. 


THROMBOSIS AND EMBOLISM. 73 

(2.) Thrombi of the heart, vegetations on the 
valves and on the walls of the aorta. 

(3.) Portions of the inner-coat of the aorta may 
become detached and form an embolus ; also por¬ 
tions of tumors which project in the veins, and fat 
may form emboli. 

In a considerable number of cases, it is impossible 
to find any source for embolus. It must be remem¬ 
bered, however, in emboli, in connection with wounds, 
that not only the veins of the wounded region are to 
be examined, but also those of the pelvis. 

The consequences of thrombosis vary with the sit¬ 
uation of the clot; thrombi in the arteries produce 
either a lack of circulation in the region supplied by 
the artery, or else intense congestion from the col¬ 
lateral circulation. Later there may be inflammatory 
changes, softening, or gangrene. Thrombi in the 
veins produce inflammation in and around the vein, 
thickening of the skin and connective tissue, gangrene 
and hemorrhage. 

The consequences of embolism vary with the char¬ 
acter of the embolus and its situation. A simple plug 
of fibrine in a vessel only produces changes in the 
circulation, but a plug from a gangrenous thrombus 
has a tendency to excite suppurative inflammation 
wherever it lodges. 

The size ‘of the artery thus obstructed, and the 
character of its collateral circulation also lead to a 
variety of results. If a large artery is stopped, the part 
becomes empty; if a small one the part may become 


74 


undertakers’ manual. 


extravasated with blood from the collateral circula¬ 
tion. Thus, if the large arteries supplying the 
extremities are obstructed, paralysis of the muscles, 
and finally dry gangrene, ensue. 

Emboli of the pulmonary arteries produce sudden 
death ; of the coronary arteries, sudden death ; of the 
cerebral arteries, softening of the brain ; of the retina, 
sudden blindness ; of the mesenteric arteries, conges¬ 
tion and gangrene of the intestines. 

Abscesses are also produced. This takes place 
when the embolus is of an irritative and gangrenous 
nature. Large abscesses are only found in the lungs 
and liver, therefore the mechanical results of an em¬ 
bolus produce the following condition of affairs : A 
set of vessels are first emptied of their blood, and the 
nutrition of their walls thus impaired; after a time 
these vessels are filled up from the veins, their abnor¬ 
mal walls can no longer resist the blood pressure, and 
hemorrhage takes place. 

After an hemorrhagic infraction is formed, the sub¬ 
sequent changes are of a degenerative character. 
The blood loses its coloring matter and breaks down 
into a mass of granules, forming a dry, yellow, wedge- 
shaped mass, or it may break down and form into a 
puriform fluid, or it may be surrounded by a zone of 
inflammation or of gangrene. 

The above condition of the system will explain why 
and under the circumstances enumerated, the injec¬ 
tion of a blood vessel may be brought to a sudden 
stop without any apparent cause, and the injecting 
fluid flow back towards the injecting point. 


Thrombosis and embolism. 


75 


The various causes for such a result have been 
clearly demonstrated, but with the knowledge of 
these causes as previous stated, the remedy can be 
applied without much trouble. It can be estimated 
by the amount of fluid injected, about to what extent 
the vessel has been filled, and by following its course 
the point where the obstruction is, can be easily ascer¬ 
tained. 

By reopening the vessel at a point above, the in¬ 
jection may still be carried on successfully, or the 
corresponding vessel on the other side of the body 
may be used for that purpose. 

It is then that even a limited amount of knowledge of 
anatomy of the human body will be found of immense 
advantage to the operator, inasmuch as it will trace 
the cause of action, to be followed in this case, and 
will enable him to do so with success. 

If, on the other hand, too great a pressure is 
brought to bear, so as to remove the obstruction by 
the mere weight of the fluid injected, the walls of the 
vessel may not be able to resist the strain, and the 
injecting fluid loses itself in the surrounding tissue 
and cavities, thereby failing to accomplish its mis¬ 


sion. 


PROCESS OF EMBALMING. 


(yjTHE following process is more laborious and re- 
quires more time than the one already given, 
I but at the same time it is more complete and 
lasting, and when the operation is skillfully and pro¬ 
perly performed, the body may be said to be embalmed 
for an indefinite period of time. 

But to carry out this process to a successful issue, 
it will be found strictly necessary to _study well, and 
bear in mind, all the details of the operation. 

It would be impossible to omit any part of the 
process and still expect the same results, for, after re¬ 
peated experiments and trials under favorable and ad¬ 
verse circumstances, the result has always proved to be 
the same. Still, this process is regulated by the same 
laws and governed by the same conditions which 
affect a body under all circumstances. An explanation 
of these conditions has already been given, and it will 
be found that a thorough knowledge of these will 
materially assist the operator in his work. 

Let us suppose, for one moment, that a man entirely 
unaquainted with the causes which may affect the 
morbid conditions of the veins and arteries, goes reck¬ 
lessly on, and commences to inject some part of the 
circulating system ; if that system is in a normal con- 

76 



PROCESS OF EMBALMING. 


77 


dition the injection will prove successful; if not, the 
worst consequences may follow. How is he then to 
remedy his mistake? His very limited knowledge, if 
he has any, will be of no avail to him. It is in the 
lack of a sufficient understanding of the human organ¬ 
ism that the cause of many failures is to be found. 
When the proper antiseptics are used, the fault does 
not lie in the inefficiency, but in the manner in which 
they have been employed. 

It is unnecessary to repeat here what we have be¬ 
fore stated, that in order to understand thoroughly 
the process of embalming, the operator must make 
himself familiar with the explanations already given, 
and also with those which shall be found hereafter. 

It will be seen in the following pages that the mode 
of treatment to which the body is subjected in this 
process, is entirely different from that which has 
already been given. 

The completeness of this process will be readily 
understood after a careful study of its details, and if 
strictly followed in every particular, will be found not 
only satisfactory in its results, but also lasting for an 
indefinite period of time. 

It is well enough to say here, that a metallic casket is 
not required to assist in keeping the body after it has 
been treated according to the following method. Quite 
the reverse, a wooden casket will answer the purpose 
much better, as the body is rendered perfectly inaccessi¬ 
ble to the attacks of the ambient atmosphere by the ex¬ 
ternal covering which encases the body, in its trans- 


78 UNDERTAKERS* MANUAL. 

parent and elastic coating, impervious alike to air and 
moisture. 

The body should be placed on a table about four feet 
high, and elevated nearly six inches at the head; it must 
be here borne in mind that, to perform the following 
operation successfully, the operator should be left 
alone to his work, in a room free from intrusion, 
where idle questioning from standers by, or the talk 
of the usual routine of business, will not disturb him. 
And as it may require some time to complete the 
work, it were better that the remains were brought to 
the undertaker’s establishment, where there is gener¬ 
ally, or ought to be, a room set apart for this branch 
of the business. 

The body is first washed clean with soap and tepid 
water, so as to remove every particle of fat or greasy 
substance which might obstruct the pores of the skin, 
and thereby prevent the salts contained in the bathing 
lotion to penetrate the tissues and produce the desired 
effect. 

The body must then be thoroughly dried by means 
of clean towels, and be well saturated with the fol- 


lowing lotion : 


Acetate of Alumina, 

1 pound. 

Sulphate of Iron, 

- 4 ounces. 

Corrosive Sublimate, 

2 ounces. 

Water, - 

- 1 gallon. 


The body is to be kept constantly moist with the 
aforesaid solution, and as soon as evaporation has 


PROCESS OF EMBALMING. 


79 


dried up the surface of the skin, a new application of 
the solution becomes necessary ; in fact, the process 
should come as near complete immersion as possible. 
The eyes must be well closed. To avoid the sinking, 
which after a certain time must inevitably take place, 
and which will disfigure the best prepared corpse, I 
would here suggest the use of the wax shells, to be 
inserted under the eye-lids—these shells, as stated in 
a previous chapter, are manufactured by John C. 
Rulon, of Philadelphia, and can be had by the quan¬ 
tity on very moderate terms—to keep the eye-lids in 
their place; the outside of the shell must be coated 
with white gum shellac, dissolved in alcohol. 

After the insertion of the shells thus coated, the 
lids are brought together and held in place by the 
fingers. Shelac dries quick, and in about five minutes’ 
time it will be found that the gum has acquired 
enough of consistency to hold the lids together. As 
a matter of course it will get harder in time and pre¬ 
vent the lids from starting apart. 

The operator will then cut a straight line through 
the skin with a scalpel, the line to extend from the 
superior part of the sternum to the umbilical region. 

Another incision of the skin is to be made at right 
angles from the first, about six inches in length, and 
one inch below the lower bend of the last rib. 

Then, with the thumb and forefinger of the left 
hand, seize the skin firmly at a point where the two 
lines intersect each other, and with the scalpel held in 
the right hand, carefully separate the skin from the 


8o 


UNDERTAKERS MANUAL. 


fascia underneath. This operation is repeated on the 
four sides, and the flaps of the skin turned over the 
sides of the body. This will leave exposed to view a 
diamond shaped opening of the epidermis, with its 
apex reaching above to the superior portions of the 
sternum, and the lowest angle reaching to within two 
inches of the navel; the two lateral points extend on 
both sides of the body from the region of the stomach 
to the liver, and almost immediately above the trans¬ 
verse arch of the colon. 

To cut through the abdominal fascia, carefully punc¬ 
ture it above the stomach, so the opening will be 
large enough to admit the fore-finger of the right hand 
being introduced through the opening ; then holding 
the scalpel with its edge upwards, the back resting 
along the extended forefinger, introduce both into the 
opening, and cut from downward upwards into the 
the fascia of the abdomen in a straight line across 
from the stomach to the liver in a similar way to that 
above described for cutting through the skin. This 
last incision is to follow the same course as the one 
cut in the epidermis, and will extend from one to the 
other lateral angles of the diamond shaped opening in 
the skin. This opening will reveal the stomach on 
the left, the liver on the right, and the transverse 
arch of the colon immediately beneath. 

Then another cleaving of the fascia is to be per¬ 
formed, downwards and in a similar manner, from the 
middle of the transverse opening to within two inches 
of the navel; this last opening exposes the small in¬ 
testines. 


PROCESS OF EMBALMING. 81 

The reason why the cutting of the fascia of the 
abdomen should be performed in this manner, that is, 
with the scalpel being held edge upwards along the 
extended forefinger, is obvious ; the forefinger in this 
case acts as a guide to the scalpel in dividing the tis¬ 
sues, and also protects the viscera from being wounded 
by the sharp point of the knife. 

The abdominal viscera being thus exposed, the 
lungs, heart and other parts of the thoracic viscera 
must also be uncovered. For this purpose, and with 
the cartilage knife separate the ribs from the sternum 
about two inches on either side of the latter; com¬ 
mencing from the second rib down to the last one, 
and extending to the transverse opening made in the 
abdomen, it will be found that the ribs at that dis¬ 
tance from the sternum are attached to it by a carti¬ 
lage, which it is very easy to cut in children, harder 
in adults, and it may sometimes be indispensable to 
use a saw on old persons. This cutting through the 
ribs must be carefully performed, for fear of wound¬ 
ing some of the organs which lay immediately 
beneath and against the ribs. 

The sternum being thus freed from the ribs, it can 
be turned back over and against the face, and will 
reveal through the opening thus made, the lungs, the 
heart, the arch of the aorta, etc. 

The operator should use extreme caution whilst 
performing this operation, as the jagged and sharp 
edges of the ribs might cut through the skin and 
inflict a wound, should the hand be suddenly brought 


82 Undertakers’ manual. 

in contact with them. It is also necessary to enjoin 
again forcibly, the recommendation made before, of 
keeping the body well saturated with the lotion while 
the work is progressing. 

The bowels must then be carefully displaced, and 
all fluid or serum found between or under the intes¬ 
tines be completely sponged out; the intestines must 
also be emptied of their contents by the process 
which has already been given in the first method of 
embalming; also the stomach, the gall bladder, all 
the organs, in fact, which contain foreign elements 
prone to putrefy. The bladder can be emptied of the 
urine by means of a catheter, introduced into the 
urinary canal. 

All the organs which shall have been emptied of 
their contents, as also the intestines, the bladder, and 
the others, must be injected with the following solu¬ 
tion, or embalming liquid: 

Corrosive Sublimate, - - - 2 ounces. 

Chloride of Zinc, - 3 ounces. 

Alcohol, y gallon. 

Dissolve the corrosive sublimate and the chloride 
of zinc into the alcohol; then after the salts are com¬ 
pletely dissolved, add 

Pyroligneous Acid, \ gallon. 

Creasote, - - - - 4 ounces. 

Stir briskly with either a glass or wooden rod and 
the liquid is ready for use. The above solution, 
which ought always to be prepared in advance and 


PROCESS OF EMBALMING. 


83 


kept on hand, must be enclosed in green glass bottles, 
well stoppered, and kept in a dark and cool place. 
Metallic vessels should never be used to hold the em¬ 
balming liquid; neither the solution employed to 
bathe the body. A glass or china vessel must be 
used in either case. 

As to puncturing the different organs for the pur¬ 
pose of emptying their contents, the manner for doing 
so has clearly been given in the first process for 
embalming bodies, but great care must always be used 
so as not to perforate any of the vessels of the circu¬ 
latory system. 

The next step is to inject the arterial system. For 
this purposes different point for injecting the system 
is selected from the one pointed out in the former pro¬ 
cess. By removing the small intestines out, and on the 
right side of the body the descending branch of the 
aorta is exposed to view. In its course downwards, 
the aorta lies on the vertebral column to the left of 
che middle line, and terminates on the fourth lumbar 
vertebra, by dividing into the two common iliac 
arteries. The descending branch of the aorta is then 
punctured so as to admit the nozzle of the injector; 
this is introduced into the opening in an upward 
direction, and the walls of the artery are then tied 
firmly, but not so as to cut through, around the noz¬ 
zle. After the artery has been thus prepared, and 
before injecting, the vena cava must be perforated at 
a point corresponding with the incision practiced in 
the descending portion of the aorta where the nozzle 
of the injector is inserted. 


3 4 


undertakers’ manual. 


The inferior vena cava ascends alon°; the front 
of the vertebral column , and to the right of the 
abdominal aorta. The object of severing this vein 
is to give the blood in the upper portions of the 
body a means of escape, as the fluid is forced through 
and up the arteries of that part and returning through 
the veins forces the blood through the opening. 

After the upper portion of the body has been in¬ 
jected with about half a gallon of the embalming 
liquid, the nozzle of the injector must be reversed and 
the lower parts injected in a similar manner with 
about the same amount of liquid ; the injection must 
then be stopped for the space of about three hours, 
and all the blood which may have escaped from the 
opening made in the vena cava into the cavity of the 
intestines must be sponged out as it fills up the space 
left. 

The mode of injecting is also of extreme import¬ 
ance. The injection should be done slowly and steadi¬ 
ly, as a strong, sudden forcing up of the liquid into the 
arteries might occasion a rupture of their walls should 
some point be weakened from some cause arising 
from previous sickness, or from lesions as described in 
a previous chapter. 

The injection may then be renewed and more 
liquid be injected, until a sufficient quantity has been 
used. As there are no rules laid down for the amount 
of liquid to be injected, it is left altogether to the 
discrimination and good judgment of the operator. 


PROCESS OF EMBALMING. 


8S 


The bodies of children and old persons will re¬ 
quire less liquid than adults up to the age of forty. 
The bodies of persons killed by accident or some 
sudden cause, will require a larger amount of liquid 
than those of persons who are emaciated by long ill¬ 
ness, as, for instance, consumption. 

After the arterial and venous system have been 
thus completely injected, the intestines must be re¬ 
placed in the abdominal cavity. 

The brains must next be removed, and this opera¬ 
tion is one which requires extreme caution, as will be 
seen by the following explanation of the process. 

The body is turned on the right side, and, by means 
of a trephine, a round hole is cut into the back of the 
skull, about two inches above the cerebellum; the 
piece of bone thus taken out is preserved so as to be 
replaced into the opening after the operation is fin¬ 
ished. Previous to cutting through the skull, a small 
incision in the shape of a cross, about two inches in 
length, each way, must be cut in the skin. The object 
of this is to leave the bone denuded after the skin has 
been detached from the bone, and also to bring the 
parts together by sewing, after the brain has been re¬ 
moved. 

Through the opening thus made in the skull, the 
brain, or the portion of it which can be reached, is 
easily removed by means of a small, slender spoon, 
with a long handle, made for the purpose. The cavity 
thus made in the head is to be filled with the following : 

Take two gallons or more of water, and saturate 


86 


undertakers’ manual. 


with alum, as much as it will dissolve ; then mix with 
plaster of paris to the consistency of very thin paste, 
and fill the cavity of the brain ; some cotton may then 
be introduced to keep the mixture inside; the round 
piece of bone cut from the skull is then replaced, the 
flaps of the cut in the skin brought together and neatly 
sewed up; if this operation is carefully performed, 
the cuts thus made cannot be perceived under the 
hair. 

Great caution should be exercised while removing 
the brain, in not wounding any of the veins and ar¬ 
teries which are inside that part of the skull, and with 
a little care this can be easily avoided. 

The body is then turned again on the back, in the 
former position, and all the cavities in the thorax and 
the abdomen, between and under the intestines, the 
liver, the lungs and the heart, must be well cleaned 
and dried with a sponge of all liquid or serum that 
might be found; pulverize some tannic acid into fine 
powder, and sprinkle heavily around and between the 
organs of the thorax and the abdomen; the sternum 
is then replaced over the thoracic opening, the flaps 
of the skin temporarily brought back over the abdo¬ 
men, and the body, being enveloped in a sheet or 
some linen cloth, well saturated with the lotion for the 
face as given in the first part of this chapter. 

The face, hands, feet, in fact every inch of the sur¬ 
face of the body, above and under, is to be covered 
with the cloth, tightly wrapped around it and well 
saturated as above directed. 


PROCESS OF EMBALMING. 


87 


The body must be kept in this condition for about 
twelve hours, when the cloth is to be removed; the 
sternum is then raised again and the skin over the 
abdomen thrown back; a mixture of plaster of paris 
and alum, prepared as described above, is then poured 
over the whole of the thoracic and abdominal viscera, 
being careful to fill completely all the interstices ex¬ 
isting between and under the different organs and the 
intestines. 

This composition, or cement, must be brought up 
to a level with the ribs in the thorax, and cover the 
viscera in the abdomen; after the cement is set, or 
nearly so, sprinkle a plentiful quantity of powdered 
tannic acid on the top of it. 

Then bring the sternum down to its proper place 
between the ribs, and also the internal fascia of the 
abdomen over the viscera; and last, the flaps of the 
skin are brought together and neatly sewed up, taking 
a stitch alternately under and above the skin. Should 
the mouth have a tendency to remain open, or the lips 
be too far apart, sew the lips together with surgeon 
silk, passing the needle up inside of the lip, near the 
gums, also through the nether lip in a similar manner, 
from one corner of the mouth to the other, where the 
last stitch can be tied up in a slip knot. 

Before the mouth is sewed up it is always necessary 
to fill the inside of the mouth with cotton, well sat¬ 
urated with embalming fluid. In case a great number 
or all the back teeth be missing, which might cause a 
sinking of the cheeks, and thereby to a great extent 


88 


undertakers’ manual. 


disfigure the body, introduce some cotton, prepared 
as above, between the gums and the cheeks ; it will 
give the body an appearance more natural, and less 
emaciated. This rule ought to be applied not only 
in embalming, but also at ordinary times. When lay¬ 
ing out a corpse, the mourners and friends of the 
family will always appreciate anything of the kind, 
which tends to beautify the remains and divest death 
of its hideousness. 

The nostrils must also be filled with the same com¬ 
position of alum and plaster of paris ; let the cement 
be thin enough in this case, so it may be injected into 
the nasalfossea by means of an India rubber syringe, 
until the nostrils are completely full; then hold it in 
place with some cotton wads saturated with embalm¬ 
ing fluid. 

After the body has been so far prepared, it remains 
to encase it into a transparent and elastic covering, 
which will prevent the attacks from the atmosphere, 
and, at the same time, render the body impervious to 
moisture. For this purpose, procure from some first- 
class druggist some Canada balsam (it must be fresh 
and perfectly colorless, as it is prone to grow thick 
and yellow in time); then procure a vessel—a glass 
jar with large mouth should be preferred; this jar 
should be large enough to hold twice the amount of 
Canada Balsam on hand; bring the jar near the fire, 
if it is in winter, and submit the balsam to a gentle 
heat until it is liquefied; so soon as the balsam has 
attained the consistency of thin honey, add to it the 


PROCESS OF EMBALMING. 


89 


same amount of the best spirits of turpentine that can 
be obtained, and stir with a glass rod until the balsam 
and turpentine have been, thoroughly mixed; then 
apply the mixture on the body by means of a camels- 
hair brush, very wide, and similar in shape to the 
brushes generally employed for moistening the paper 
used in copying letters. 

A single thin layer of this mixture is quite sufficient, 
and should be evenly applied to any part of the body, 
where the growth of hair is not sufficient to exclude 
the approach of the atmosphere. 

It will require but a very short time for this varnish 
to dry, and then the body will be ready for either 
burial in a crypt, easy of access, or for transportation 
to some foreign country. 

In the course of time the organic tissues will dry 
and desiccate, the bony prominent parts of the joints 
may become more angulous, the skin may assume a 
slightly yellow tinge, but the features will always be 
natural and recognizable; the skin will never shrivel 
up and shrink back, exposing the teeth, as is generally 
the case with the Egyptian mummies; and, above all, 
putrefaction with all its repulsive hideous accessories, 
will never take place; nor will noxious gases or offen¬ 
sive odors be emitted. 

A wooden casket will also be found preferable to a 
metallic one, as the free admission of air will favor 
the drying up of the tissues and the absorption of 
whatever little moisture which might find its way out 
of the only opening not hermetically sealed—the 
mouth. 


9 ° 


undertakers’ manual. 


Undertakers will find this process to be, without 
any exception, the best method of embalming ever 
employed; bodies prepared as above can be shipped 
to the most distant points across the seas; or, can be 
preserved for an indefinite period of time in some 
family vault, where the surviving members can at any 
time obtain a vision of the body without having their 
sensibilities shocked by the horrible picture of slowly 
decomposing animal matter. 

It must not be forgotten, that, if the above process 
is slow, long and tedious, requiring a good deal of 
labor and delicate handling, the results obtained are 
equally important, and the compensation commen¬ 
surate with the magnitude of the undertaking. 


EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 


^TERNUM.—One of the bones of the thorax; is 
jp situated in the middle line in the front of the 

! chest, and is oblique in direction, the superior 
end lying within a few inches of the vertebral column, 
the inferior being projected forward so as to be placed 
at a considerable distance from the spine. The bone 
is flat or slightly concave in front, and marked by five 
transverse lines, which indicate its original sub-division 
into six pieces. It is convex behind, broad and thick 
above, where it presents a concave border, and narrow 
at its junction with the middle piece. It is divided 
into the superior piece or manubrium, the middle 
piece or body, and the inferior piece, which is the 
smallest of the three, and varies in appearance, being 
sometimes pointed, at other times broad and thin, and 
again, at other times, perforated by a round hole. The 
seven true ribs are attached at each side of the ster¬ 
num by means of the costal cartilage. 

Abdominal Region .—The abdomen is the inferior 
cavity of the trunk of the body; it is bounded in 
front and at the sides by the lower ribs and abdominal 
muscles, above by the diaphragm, and below by the 
pelvis, and contains the alimentary canal, the organs 

91 


92 


undertakers’ manual. 


subservient to digestion, viz : the liver, pancreas and 
spleen, and the organs of excretion, the kidneys and 
the supra-renal capsules. 

The abdomen may be divided into three regions; in 
the upper region will be seen the liver, extending 
across from the right to the left side, the stomach and 
spleen on the left, and the pancreas and duodenum 
behind; in the middle region is the transverse part of 
the colon, with the upper part of the ascending and 
descending colon, omentum, small intestines, messen- 
tery, and behind, the kidneys and supra-renal capsules; 
in the inferior region is the lower part of the omentum 
and small intestines, ascending and descending colon, 
and ureters. 

Fascia (from fascia, a bandage) is the name assigned 
to laminae of various extent and thickness, which are 
distributed through different regions of the body for 
the purpose of investing or protecting the softer or 
more delicate organs. From a consideration of their 
structure, these fasciae may be arranged into two 
groups: areolo-fibrous fascia, and aponeurotic fascia. 

The areolo-fibrous fascia is best illustrated by the 
common subcutaneous investment of the entire body, 
the superficial fascia. This structure is situated im¬ 
mediately beneath the integument over every part of 
the frame, and is the medium of connexion between 
that layer and the deeper parts; it is composed of 
areolar and elastic tissues, and contains an abundance 
of adipose cells. The fat, being a bad conductor of 
caloric, serves to retain the warmth of the body, while 


EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 


93 


it forms at the same time a yielding tissue, through 
which minute vessels and nerves pass to the skin 
without incurring the risk of obstruction from injury 
or pressure. 

The aponeurotic fascia is the strongest kind of 
investing membrane; it is composed of tendinous 
fibres running parallel with each other and connected 
by other fibres of the same kind passing in different 
directions, together with areolar tissue and fine elastic 
fibres. In the limbs, it constitutes the deep fascia, 
inclosing and forming distinct sheaths to all the mus¬ 
cles and tendons. It is thick on the outer and least 
protected side of the limb, and thinner at its inner 
side. 

The Skin is the exterior investment of the body, 
which it serves to cover and protect. It is continuous 
at the aperture of the internal cavities with the 
lining membrane of those cavities, the internal skin 
or mucous membrane, and is composed essentially of 
two layers—derma and epidermis. The derma or 
cutis is chiefly composed of areola-fibrous tissues, 
besides which it has entering in its structure elastic 
tissues and smooth muscular fibre, together with blood 
vessels and nerves. The epidermis or cuticle (scarf- 
skin) is a product of the derma, which it serves to 
envelop and defend. That surface of the epidermis 
which is exposed to the influence of the atmosphere 
and exterior sources of injury is hard and horny in 
texture, while that which lies in contact with the 
under layer is soft and cellular. 


94 


undertakers’ manual. 


Viscera .—The viscera of the human body are situ¬ 
ated in the three great cavities—cranio-spinal, thorax 
and abdomen. The viscera of the cranio-spinal cavity 
are the brain, with the spinal cord, and the principal 
organs of sense. The viscera of the chest are, the 
central organs of circulation, the heart, the organs of 
respiration, the lungs. The abdominal viscera admit 
of a sub-division into those which properly belong to 
that cavity, viz : the alimentary canal, .the liver, pan¬ 
creas, spleen and kidneys ; and those of the pelvis, the 
bladder and the internal organs of generation. 

Cartilage .—In the structure of joints, cartilages 
serve the double purpose of a connecting and separ¬ 
ating medium ; in the former capacity possessing great 
strength; in the latter, smoothness and elasticity. For 
instance, the costal cartilages unite the ribs with the 
sternum and form the point of separation by the knife, 
when it is desired to raise the sternum, as in the pre¬ 
ceding process of embalming. 

Gall Bladder is the reservoir of the bile; it is a 
sac situated in a fosse on the under surface of the 
right lobe of the liver. 

Pancreas .—It is a long, flattened, conglomerate 
gland; it is about six inches in length, and is situated 
transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen 
and behind the stomach. 

Supra-Renal Capsules are two small, yellowish and 
flattened bodies surmounting the kidneys, and incline 
ing inwards and towards the vertebral column. 


EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 


95 


Kidneys are the secreting organs of the urine; they 
are situated in the lumbar region, and at each side of 
the vertebral column. 

Pelvis .—The cavity of the pelvis is that portion of 
the great abdominal cavity which is included between 
the bones of the pelvis. The viscera of the pelvis in 
the male are the urinary bladder, prostrate gland and 
rectum. 

Bladder .—It is a hollow, membranous viscus, trian¬ 
gular and flattened against the pubes when empty, 
ovoid when distended, and in front of and upon the 
rectum. 

Circle of Willis .—The communications established 
between the anterior cerebral arteries in front and the 
internal cavities and posterior cerebral arteries behind, 
by the communicating arteries, constitute the remark¬ 
able vascular communication at the base of the brain 
called the circle of Willis. 


OF ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 


SECTION ONE. 



HE purpose of the present chapter, so far as our 
knowledge extends, is to describe the chemical 
history of those bodies which are characterized 
as being rather organized than organic; as constitut¬ 
ing not merely a product of the vital operations of the 
being, but the mechanism itself by which these vital 
operations are carried on; as making part of the 
tissues essential to its proper organization and life; 
and as being, while in connection with the animal and 
participating in its life, protected from the truly chem¬ 
ical reactions of their proper elements, which after the 
death of the animal, especially when in contact with 
air or water, rapidly assume simpler forms of union, 
and breaking up the complex animal tissue into a 
crowd of binary compounds, under the change well 
known as putrefaction. 

In connection with these substances which form 
the basis of the organs and tissues of the animal 
frame, will be brought under survey the processes by 
which, from the atmosphere or from the materials of 
our food, the substance of our organs is continually 
renewed, their growth provided for, and the condi- 

96 



OF ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 


97 


tions necessary for the continuance of life and health 
maintained. The following elucidation of the mate¬ 
rials which enter into the composition of the human 
body is of extreme importance, as it will help to 
demonstrate why the chemicals employed in the for¬ 
mer processes of embalming have been selected in 
preference to others. 

Of Fibrine .—This substance constitutes the basis 
of the muscular tissue, and forms an important con¬ 
stituent of the blood. In the latter it exists dissolved 
during life, but separates after death or extraction 
from the body, producing, with the coloring material, 
the phenomenon of coagulation. In the muscles the 
fibrine is arranged in a truly organized and living 
condition, constituting the contractile fibres, in which 
it is so interwoven with nervous and vascular filaments 
as to render its isolation impossible. To obtain pure 
fibrine, therefore, we have recourse to blood, which, if 
immediately on being drawn it be briskly agitated 
with a little bundle of twigs, does not coagulate, but 
the fibrine is deposited on the twigs in soft, tenacious 
masses, which, being washed to remove any adhering 
coloring matter, and digested in alcohol and ether to 
remove any traces of fatty substances which may 
adhere to it, constitute pure fibrine; which maybe 
dried by a gentle heat, and appears then as a yellow¬ 
ish, opaque mass, hard, tasteless and inodorous. # If 
it be at all transparent, this results from traces of 
adhering fat. It is insoluble in water, alcohol and 
ether; it absorbs, however, so much water as to treble 


9 8 


undertakers’ manual. 


its weight, and thereby recovers the volume, softness 
and flexibility it possessed before being dried. 

If sulphate of soda or nitrate of potash be added to 
newly drawn blood, its coagulation is prevented; and 
if fibrine be digested in a strong solution of nitre, it 
dissolves, forming a thick liquid, which is coagulated 
by heat, by alcohol, by acids, and is precipitated by 
the salts of mercury , lead and copper , and by yellow 
prussiate of potash. This property of fibrine will 
again come under our notice. 

Of Albumen .—This substance is even more exten¬ 
sively distributed through the animal frame than 
fibrine. Like fibrine, it exists in two conditions, one 
soluble and one insoluble in water; but whereas the 
fibrine becomes insoluble almost instantly on being 
withdrawn from the body, albumen may retain that 
state for an indefinite time, and its history is therefore 
more complete. In its soluble form it exists in the 
blood, in the serous secretions, in the humours of the 
eye; in the soluble or coagulated form it constitutes a 
portion of most of the solid tissues. 

Soluble Albumen .—This is obtained in the solid 
form by evaporating to dryness, at a temperature 
which does not exceed 120°, the serum of blood; the 
dry mass is yellow, transparent, hard, tough, and con¬ 
tains, besides the albumen, the salts and some other 
constituents of the blood in minute quantities; these 
are extracted by digestion in alcohol and ether, which 
leave the albumen pure. When thus completely dry 
it may be heated beyond 212 0 without passing into 


OF ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 


99 


the coagulated condition; if digested in cold water it 
gradually swells up and finally dissolves. This solu¬ 
tion, when heated to a temperature between 140° and 
150°, coagulates; if dilute, the solution may even be 
heated to 165° without coagulating, and when present 
in very small quantity the albumen may not separate 
until the water boils. 

When once coagulated in this manner, albumen is 
totally insoluble in water; it is then changed into its 
second form. The solution of albumen is precipitated 
by alcohol , by acids and vietallic salts , exactly as the 
solution of fibrine in saltpetre; the only distinction 
that can be drawn between the two is that the saline 
solution of fibrine is partially decomposed by the 
addition of a large quantity of water. 

The precipitates yielded by a solution of albumen 
with metallic salts are mixture of two distinct sub¬ 
stances, one a compound of albumen with the acid, 
the other a compound of albumen with the metallic 
oxide; the former is generally somewhat soluble, the 
latter insoluble, and hence results the application of 
albumen as an antidote to mineral poisons, as corro¬ 
sive sublimate and blue stone. 

Albumen is also coagulated by many organic bodies, 
as tannic acid and creosote, which acts catalytically, 
as a very minute quantity of it coagulates a large 
quantity of albumen, without entering into combina¬ 
tion with it. 

Of the Gelatinous Constituents of the Tissues. —When 
the skin, cellular or serous, tissues, tendons, and some 


a > » 


TOO 


undertakers' manual. 


forms of cartilage, as that of bones, are boiled in watei, 
they dissolve in great part and form a solution which 
gelatinizes on cooling. Some of these tissues, as the 
skin ; dissolve easily and almost completely; others 
dissolve but partly, and leave behind a quantity of 
coagulated albumen. In most kinds of cartilage a 
very prolonged boiling is necessary to extract a sen¬ 
sible quantity of gelatine. These various tissues are 
thus found to consist of albumen and gelatine, united 
in various proportions, and each presenting various 
degrees of condensation of texture; but by boiling 
they may be completely separated from each other. 

Gelatine is insoluble in alcohol and ether. When 
a solution of gelatine is long exposed to the air, it 
undergoes a commencement of putrefaction, and loses 
its property of gelatinizing. 

The action of reagents on gelatine is in some cases 
of high interest, it is not precipitated by solutions of 
either ordinary or basic alum, but if a solution of 
common salt be also mixed, the gelatine falls down, 
combined with alumina, as it decomposes the muriate 
of ammonia which is then formed. On this principle 
is founded the manufacture of white leather, by a 
kind of tanning with alum. 

The most important compound of gelatine is that 
with tannic acid, which constitutes ordinary leather; 
this reaction is so distinct that one part of gelatine in 
five thousand of water is at once detected by the 
infusion of galls. 

Many chemists consider that gelatine is merely a 





op animal Chemistry. 


ioi 


product of the decomposition of albumen and fibrine 
by boiling water, and not a true constituent of the 
tissues; but this idea is thought to be incorrect, on 
the following grounds: First, pure fibrine or albumen 
gives no gelatine by boiling; second, in the process of 
tanning, the tannic acid combines with gelatine in a 
skin which has never been boiled; and third, that we 
can easily understand why some tissues give more 
gelatine than others by the different degrees of con¬ 
densation of their structure. But it is rather consid¬ 
ered that gelatine bears the same relation to the 
tissues of the skin or cellular membrane that proteine 
does to the fibrine of the blood, being really a product 
of its death and decomposition, though the only rep¬ 
resentative of it which we can have. 

Of the Fatty Constituents of the Tissues. —The fatty 
bodies, although contributing essentially to the sup¬ 
port of the animal frame, are mere secretions, and do 
not form any portion of its organized tissues. The 
substances properly included under the present head 
are the constituents of the nervous tissue, such as it 
is found in the brain, the spinal cord and the nerves. 

In the composition of the brain, it is easy to dis¬ 
tinguish three, perhaps five, distinct substances of a 
fatty nature; the most characteristic and important is 
called cerebrote; in composition it resembles albumen, 
containing a large quantity of nitrogen. 

Saline, and Extractive Constituents of the Tissues .— 
We find in all the animal tissues small quantities of a 


102 ' UNDERTAKERS* MANUAL. 

great variety of salts, the same as those which will be 
hereafter noticed as existing in the blood, to the 
presence of which in the substance of the tissues 
they arc probably due. In the tissue of the bones 
and teeth, however, these saline matters are deposited 
in much greater quantities, and in disease and old 
age bony deposits occur in all those tissues, which 
yield true gelatine on boiling. The composition of 
the bones will be hereafter noticed. 

Of the Composition of the Tissues and of the Secre¬ 
tions in Health and Disease. —Having described thus 
individually the constituents of the tissues, wc shall 
now present such results as have been hitherto ob¬ 
tained as to the quantitive composition of the organ¬ 
ized tissues formed by their reunion, their secretory 
products and morbid alterations. 

The skin of animals is a congeries of finely con¬ 
structed organs, sensitive and secretory, imbedded in 
a peculiar tissue, which is one of those most yielding 
gelatine, whence the process of tanning skins. On 
the surface of the skin there is secreted a substance, 
which, though varying in anatomical structure and 
appearance exceedingly, as it forms the fine epidermis, 
the nails, the hair, etc., is yet throughout all their 
shapes identical in chemical character, and may be 
described as the same substance. The principal mass 
of hair is composed of the same substance as horn, 
but the color is due to an oil which may be extracted 
by ether. If by virtue of the sulphur contained in 
hair a solution of litharge in some limestone water 


OF ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. IO 3 

blackens it, a solution of nitrate of silver will also 
blacken the hair, but by a deposition of the metal. 

The perspiration from the skin varies in nature 
according to the part of the body; it is generally 
acid, contains traces of albumen, fatty matter and 
the salts of the blood; it often contains, also, an 
odoriferous, volatile principle, characteristic of the 
animal by which it is secreted. 

Cellular a?id Serous Tissues .—These tissues are con¬ 
stituted of gelatinous materials similar to that in the 
skin, and hence dissolve by boiling water, being con¬ 
verted into gelatine. In the natural condition of 
these membranes their surface is moistened by a 
watery liquid, which, accumulating in excessive quan¬ 
tity, gives rise to the dropsies of the cavities, or of 
the cellular tissues. This serum of the cavities is 
clear and colorless. The cells of the cellular tissues, 
in which fat is usually deposited, are often filled up 
by an albuminous material having considerable anal¬ 
ogy with casein; it is thus that the diffused hardening 
of the cellular tissue and the local white tumors have 
their origin. 

Of the Muscular Tissue .—From what has been 
already said of fibrine, it is evidently the essential 
element of the muscular tissues, and forms with water 
almost the whole of their parts. 

Of the Bones .—In vertebrated animals with osseous 
skeletons the earthy material, in all cases, consists 
principally of phosphate of lime, with phosphate of 


104 UNDERTAKERS* MANUAL. 

magnesia, carbonate of lime and soda. By digesting 
a bone in dilute muriatic acid, all of these inorganic 
salts are removed, and the cartilage remains, preserv¬ 
ing perfectly the form of the bone. 

The teeth present, in their combinations, the great¬ 
est analogy to bone; the principal and organized 
substance of the teeth is indeed true bone, containing 
indeed less cartilage and more phosphate of lime than 
other bones. The enamel, which is an inorganic 
secretion from the surface of the long tooth, is almost 
destitute of any animal matter. 

Of the Co?nposition of the Blood .—Blood is, in the 
higher classes of animals, an opaque, thick, red fluid; 
it has a salty and nauseous taste, and a peculiar smell, 
resembling that of the animal whence it has been 
derived. 

When the blood of any red blooded animal is 
allowed to rest, it gradually forms a soft jelly, from 
which, after some time, a thin yellowish fluid (serum) 
separates, while the red jelly or coagulum contracts 
in volume and acquires great consistence. If this 
coagulation of the blood takes place slowly, the upper 
portion of the coagulum becomes white or pale yellow ; 
forming thus, the buffy coat. There is no doubt that the 
blood, while in connection with the animal, participates 
in its life, and the phenomena of coagulation are to be 
referred to a new arrangement of its materials conse¬ 
quent on the loss of that vitality. 

The serum of the blood, when coagulation has 
been perfect, is of a yellowish, sometimes greenish, 


OF ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. I05 

color; its taste is dull and salty; it is thick fluid, like 
olive oil; when heated to 140° it coagulates. 

If we examine under the microscope the appearance 
presented by blood, we find that it consists of a great 
number of red particles swimming in a nearly colorless 
liquor. These red particles are flattened disks; in man 
they are round. Their size is variable, being in man 
from one four-thousandth to one eight-thousandth of 
an inch in diameter, but larger in other animals. 

The blood contains a large quantity of albumen , 
partly dissolved and remaining in the serum after 
coagulation, partly in a solid state, forming the great 
mass of the globules. 

In the living body the blood also contains fibrine 
in solution, but this separates soon after extraction 
from the body; it assumes a solid form, and investing, 
as a sponge, the red globules, forms with them the 
coagulum. 

The fibrine is thus the element active in the coagu¬ 
lation of the blood, the globules being but passively 
engaged in it. In addition to this essential organic 
element, the blood contains a variety of salts, as 
common salt, phosphate of magnesia, ammonia and 
lime, lactates of soda and magnesia. The best an¬ 
alyses of the blood are those of Lecanu, and the 
results for blood and serum are that they contain, in 


the human subject of each sex: 

Water, ------ 75.00 

Albumen, ----- 5.00 

Globules, - 7.14 

Fibrine, ----- .20 


io6 Undertakers' manual. 

The fatty substance of the blood is a mixture of 
cholesterine with stearic and oleic acid and a peculiar 
fatty substance termed seroline, the history of which 
is yet incomplete. None of the fats of the brain, 
however, seem to exist in the blood. 

The chemical history of fibrine and albumen having 
been already given, it remains only to describe the 
peculiar coloring matter for the most accurate knowl¬ 
edge we possess concerning which, we are indebted to 
Lecanu’s elaborate researches on the blood. 

Pure hematosine or coloring matter, when it is 
coagulated, is a dark brown mass, tasteless and in¬ 
odorous ; when heated it does not smell, but swells 
up and evolves ammoniacal products, it is insoluble 
in water, alcohol and ether; it forms , with the mineral 
acids , compounds which are insoluble in water but soluble 
in alcohol. 

By caustic alkalies it is dissolved with a red-blood 
color, and these combinations are soluble in water, 
alcohol and ether. Hematosine contains neither phos¬ 
phorus nor sulphur, but iron in large quantities. The 
state in which iron exists in hematosine has been, up 
to the present day, an object of much discussion 
among chemists; but with the knowledge we now 
possess of hematosine in its pure form, we must con¬ 
sider the iron to be an integral part of its organic 
constitution, as sulphur in albumen, or arsenic in 
alkarsine, and the opinion of its being oxydized and 
combined with the true organic element as a kind of 
salt can no longer be supported. If a solution of 


OF ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 107 

hematosine be acted on by chlorine gas, a white, 
flocculent precipitate is produced, and the solution 
contains chloride of iron. 

Although hematosine is the coloring principle of the 
globules of the blood, it is present but in very small 
quantity; one hundred parts of dried globules con¬ 
taining but four to five parts of hematosine; in the 
blood globule the hematosine exists in its uncoagulat¬ 
ed state, and possesses properties somewhat different 
from those of its coagulated form. 

A solution of the colored blood globules in water, 
when exposed to the air, becomes of a brighter red 
color, being thus partially arterialized ; it is coagulated 
also by alcohol and by acids; the hematosine then passes 
into the condition of insolubility, already described. 

The colorless ingredient in the blood globules has 
already been spoken of as being albumen, with which, 
indeed it is identical in properties, but differ in some 
points. It has been termed globuline. In its un¬ 
coagulated condition it can not be separated from 
hematosine, and is there distinguishable from albu¬ 
men, principally by being insoluble in even a very 
dilute saline solution, which dissolves albumen readily. 
It is, hence, that the globules of the blood swim un¬ 
altered in the serum, but are readily dissolved by pure 
water. 

If the blood, when extracted from the vein, is re¬ 
ceived into a vessel containing a solution of glauber’s 
salt, coagulation is prevented, as the fibrine remains 
dissolved, and by filtering the liquor so obtained, the 


io8 


undertakers’ manual. 


serum and water pass off and the globules remain, 
mixed only with little of the salt. The globuline 
cannot, however, be separated from hematosine, ex¬ 
cept by acids, which, as described in the preparation 
of hematosine, then combine with the globuline. 

Alteration of the Blood in disease .—The examination 
of the state of the blood in disease, although present¬ 
ing important relations to pathology and to practice, 
has been conducted in a manner too disconnected 
and superficial to produce any satisfactory results. 
This branch of chemical pathology has, however, been 
taken up by the illustrious Andral and Gavaret, who 
have published the result of the analysis of the blood 
in three hundred and sixty cases of disease. 

Their researches have enabled them to recognize 
four classes of diseases, in which the composition of 
the blood is essentially altered, though in different 
ways. 

The first class presents as a constant alteration, an 
increase in the quantity of fibrine; it includes dis¬ 
eases remarkably different in their locality and form, 
but all belonging to the class of acute inflammations 
in some cases of morbid deposition, as in tubercle and 
cancer, a similar increase in the quantity of fibrine is 
found, but it may be doubted whether it be due to 
abnormal growth or to the inflammatory action which 
accompanies it. 

In the second class the fibrine remains stationary, 
or even diminishes in quantity, while the globules in- 


OF ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. I09 

crease in proportion to the fibrine. The diseases 
which belong to this class, are, continued fevers with¬ 
out local inflammation, and some form of cerebral 
hemorrhages. 

Cerebral Hemorrhages .—In the third class, the fib¬ 
rine remaining unchanged, there is a remarkable dimi¬ 
nution in the quantity of globules ; of these diseases, 
chlorosis may be taken as an example, and in the 
fourth class it is no longer the fibrine or the globules 
which are the subject of the morbid change, but the 
quantity of the albumen in the serum is diminished; 
of this class of affections is Bright’s disease. 

It has been observed, that in cholera the blood be¬ 
comes so thick as to arrest the circulation, and con¬ 
tains from thirty to forty-five per cent, of solid matter; 
it is then, also, less strongly alkaline than healthy 
blood; this is connected probably with the matters 
vomited and evacuated, which are strongly alkaline, 
and contain a quantity of albumen. 

The blood has been found, occasionally, in cases of 
Diabetes Mellitus, to contain traces of sugar. The 
great discordance of the results obtained, may result, 
perhaps, from the sugar contained in the blood only 
for a short time after meals, and then being rapidly 
evacuated by the kidneys. In the jaundice the green 
coloring matter of the bile has been found mixed with 
the blood. 

Other observations of morbid constituents of the 
blood are too indefinite to justify me in occupying 
space with them. 


I IO 


undertakers’ manual. 


Color of the Blood .—In the living body, the blood 
in the veins and arteries is well known to differ essen¬ 
tially in color; in the former being of a dark purple- 
red, in the latter of a bright vermilion color. The 
change from the venal to the arterial state occurs dur¬ 
ing the passage of the blood through the capillary 
vessels of the lungs, where it is exposed to the action 
of an extensive surface of atmospheric air; while the 
arterial blood, in traveling the general capillary sys¬ 
tem of the body, assumes the red, dark condition in 
which it is carried back to the heart by the veins. 
Yet, although the vital properties of the blood de¬ 
pend essentially upon this change of color, we are not 
able to connect it with any alteration in the compo¬ 
sition of the constituents of the blood, or even in 
their relative proportions. 

Arterial and venous blood contains sensibly the 
same quantity of water, fibrine, globules, albumen 
and salts ; and, by analysis, the composition of those 
bodies is found to be identical, no matter what kind 
of blood they may be derived from. To trace the 
difference of nature between arterial and venous 
blood, it is therefore necessary to study it under dif¬ 
ferent points of view than its approximate or element¬ 
ary composition. So far as we have yet explained it, 
the air which has been employed in respiration, is 
found to have undergone an important change of con¬ 
stitution ; its volume is but slightly, if at all, altered; 
but a quantity of oxygen has disappeared, and is re¬ 
placed by carbonic acid, in generally equal volume. 


OF ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 


11 I 


Air which has been once respired is found to contain 
from three to four per cent, of carbonic acid, and if 
the same quantity of air be continually breathed, the 
animal dies with all the symptoms of narcotic poison¬ 
ing. When the carbonic acid has accumulated to 
from eight to ten per cent., the action of the air in 
expiration is therefore to remove carbon from the 
blood. The quantity so taken from the system in 
twenty-four hours is very large, and makes up the 
principal portion of that element which we take in 
with our food; yet, such is the activity with which 
its assimilation provides, that no perceptible change 
in the solid elements of the blood can be perceived. 

It was, at one time, a much disputed point, whether 
the carbon so separated from the system was directly 
excreted from the lungs, and carried off as it were, by 
contact with the oxygen of the air, or whether the 
oxygen was first absorbed by the blood and carried 
by the circulation to every portion of the body, where 
it combined with the carbon, which was there present 
in excess, and the carbonic acid so produced, being 
dissolved by the venous blood, was thrown off on ar¬ 
riving at the surface of the atmosphere, in the lungs. 
The progress of science has, however, finally decreed 
in favor of the latter view, to which the fullest con¬ 
firmation has been given by the careful and elaborate 
researches of Magnus. 

Gases in the Blood .—It was found that both arterial 
and venous blood contain dissolved quantities of 
gases, oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid, which 


I 12 UNDERTAKERS* MANUAL. 

amount to from one-tenth to one-twentieth the volume 
of the blood ; the proportions of these two gases to 
each other are different in arterial and venous blood; 
the oxygen in arterial blood being about one-half of 
the carbonic acid, while in the venous blood it sel¬ 
dom amounts to more than one-fifth ; the difference 
is greatest in young persons, and probably is propor¬ 
tional to their activity of nutrition. 

The quantity of nitrogen appears to be the same in 
both kinds of blood, making from one-fifth to one- 
tenth of the gaseous mixture. 

The physico-chemical conditions of respiration are 
simply explicable upon these results, by the prin¬ 
ciple of gaseous diffusion, the fine lining pulmonary 
membrane being permeable to gases. When the ven¬ 
ous blood arrives at the surface of the lungs, a por¬ 
tion of the carbonic acid which it contains is evolved, 
and a quantity of oxygen gas absorbed in place of it; 
these two quantities are not necessarily equal at each 
moment, though ultimately they become so, and hence 
the volume of oxygen absorbed is generally, though 
not universally, equal to that of the carbonic acid 
given out. There appears, from the presence of nitro¬ 
gen in equal quantity in both kinds of blood, to be 
an absorption and evolution of that gas, simply from 
physical laws, and independent of any application of 
it to the nutrition of the animal; hence the volume 
of nitrogen in air is sometimes increased, and at others 
diminished, by respiration, and a man evolves much 
nitrogen when respiring an atmosphere of oxygen and 


OF* ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 113 

hydrogen, while it has been shown that the rate of 
nutrition of a man is proportionate to the quantity of 
nitrogen it receives as food, and that none of that 
principle is really assimilated from the air. 

It is still by no means easy to decide upon the 
changes of color which occur in the blood during 
respiration; for this should appear connected, not 
merely with the presence of certain gases in the blood, 
but upon a true change in the composition of hema- 
tosine, which analysis cannot direct. 

Stevens first attracted the attention upon the in¬ 
fluence which saline bodies have upon the color of 
the blood. If dark, venous blood is put in contact 
with a solution of common salt, glauber salt, nitre, or 
carbonate of soda, it becomes as vermilion colored as 
if it had been truly arterialized ; on the contrary, the 
presence of carbonic acid impedes this action, and 
gives to blood, so reddened by a salt, not in excess, 
the dark tint of venous blood. 

If we consider, therefore, the arterial tint to be 
due to the material combination of the coloring mat¬ 
ter with the saline constituents of the serum, this will 
be darkened, when, by passing through the capillary 
system, the blood takes up an excess of carbonic 
acid ; and again, in the lungs, when the carbonic acid 
is replaced by oxygen, the vermilion color is restored, 
not by any active agency of the oxygen, but by the 
natural tint of saline hematosine becoming evident. 

Although this theory of the change of color is by 
no means free from objection, it still appears to be 
better founded than any other that has been proposed. 


undertakers’ manual. 


114 

Animal Heat .—The phenomena of respiration con¬ 
sisting mainly in the conversion of carbon into car¬ 
bonic acid by union with oxygen, the heat which is 
developed in the body of all red blooded animals has 
been naturally referred to that source; and as we 
know that the change from the arterial to the venous 
condition of the blood occurs at every point of the 
system, the almost complete equality of temperature 
throughout the body in health is explained. That 
the great source of heat is the respiratory process, 
is abundantly proved by the temperature being high¬ 
est in those animals, and in the same animal, at those 
periods when the circulation is most rapid and the 
quantity of air consumed the greatest. But it has 
been calculated that the heat evolved by the combus¬ 
tion of the quantity of carbon thrown off from the 
body in twenty-four hours is no more than eight-tenths 
of the quantity generated in the body during that time, 
and the origin of the remainder must be found in the 
action of the muscles and the nervous power, which 
appears of itself to be a distinct source of animal 
heat. 


ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 


SECTION TWO. 



Co?nposition of the Digestive Organs and of their Secre¬ 
tions—Chemical Phenomena of Digestion. 

UCUS.—The living membrane of the alimentary 
canal is moistened with a liquid possessing 
many of the characteristics of vegetable mucus, 
but containing nitrogen. It is a thick, tenacious sub¬ 
stance, which contains, dissolved in the water through 
which it is diffused, the ordinary salts of the serum 
of the blood ; it swells up with water to a considerable 
mass, but without dissolving; it dissolves in alkaline 
liquors, and is precipitated therefrom on the addition 
of an acid and the tincture of galls; the mucus from 
different parts of the mucus membrane is, however, 
by no means identical in properties. 

The liquid secreted by the internal surface of the 
stomach—the gastric juice—which exercises an im¬ 
portant influence on digestion, differs essentially in its 
character from mucus. When the stomach is empty 
and contracted, it contains ordinary mucus; but if 
even indigestible substances are introduced, and still 
more, after taking proper food, a liquid is abundantly 

115 


II6 UNDERTAKERS’ MANUAL. 

poured out, which is colorless or pale yellow, and 
contains a very small quantity of solid matter (two 
per cent.), which consists principally of inorganic 
salts (common salts and sal ammoniac, with a trace 
of a salt of iron); it is specially characterized by the 
presence of a notable quantity of free muriatic acid, 
the proportions of which vary with the activity of the 
digestive powers at the time. This gastric juice pos¬ 
sesses the remarkable property of softening down and 
dissolving fibrine and albumen, and thus converts the 
masses of food into the uniform pulp (chyme), from 
which the absorbing vessels of the small intestines 
take up the nutritious elements. 

If we form an artificial gastric juice by mixing to¬ 
gether the muriatic acid and salts in the right propor¬ 
tions, it is found to be totally incapable of dissolving 
the materials of the food, and, indeed to be quite in¬ 
active towards digestion. The organic material of 
the gastric juice, although its quantity be so minute, 
is, therefore, essential to its powers, and these may be 
perfectly conferred upon the previously inactive, ar¬ 
tificial juice, by the addition of a little of the mucus 
of the stomach or by steeping in the acid liquor, for 
a short time, a small portion of a mucous membrane, 
and filtering the liquor; for this purpose it is not even 
necessary to use the mucous membrane of the stom¬ 
ach, for that of the bladder has been found to answer 
equally well. The substance which is dissolved out 
of the membrane in these cases has been termed pep- 
sine. It has not been obtained in a truly isolated or 


ANIMAL CHEMISTRY 


n 7 

pure form, but its properties are very remarkable. 
For its full activity it requires the presence of a free 
acid, as the artificial gastric juice becomes much less 
active in dissolving food when neutralized by an 
alkali, though it retains other properties, as that of 
coagulating milk-like rennet. If the" artificial juice 
be precipitated by nitrate of lead, the precipitate 
washed, and then decomposed by sulphuret of hydro¬ 
gen ; the solution thus obtained possesses all the di¬ 
gestive powers of the juice. Hence, the pepsine and 
muriatic acid act together, by combining with oxide 
of lead. 

Pepsine appears to be completely decomposed by 
contact with alcohol or boiling water; its powers are 
also destroyed by deodorizing substances; the solu¬ 
tion of albumen and fibrine in gastric juice differs 
essentially from their solution in muriatic acid, as in 
the former case the quantity of acid is very minute, 
in relation to the quantity of material dissolved, and 
after solution the acid remains quite uncombined. 

The action of the stomach in digestion, appears, 
therefore, so far as our actual knowledge extends, a 
purely catalytic fermentative action; one in which 
the active excitant is an organic substance (pepsine), 
secreted by the mucous surface, and whose properties 
are developed by the presence of muriatic acid, which 
is secreted at the same time. The new products into 
which the food, fibrine, albumen, gluten, starch, oils, 
sugar, etc., are converted, and which collectively con¬ 
stitute the white uniform pulp, termed by physiologists 


I I 8 UNDERTAKERS* MANUAL. 

chyme, have not been made the subject of accurate 
chemical researches. 

In the mouth the mass of nutritive material is acted 
on by a liquid which is secreted by the salivary glands, 
the saliva. It is alkaline, and holds in solution not 
one per cent, of solid matter, which contains some 
carbonate of soda and common salt, admixed mucous, 
and a peculiar organic body, termed salivary matter. 

This last substance is soluble in water; its solution 
is not coagulated by heat, nor precipitated by tincture 
of galls, corrosive sublimate, acetate of lead, nor by 
acids. The pancreas, so similar in structure to the 
salivary glands, has a different secretion ; it contains 
no salivary matter, but albumen and some salts; it is 
generally slightly acid. 

Composition of the Bile .—The precise part which 
this remarkable secretion performs in the animal 
economy is not yet fully known; it has been the sub¬ 
ject of repeated and accurate chemical examination, 
although, from the facility with which its elements are 
transferred into other bodies, by the action of the 
reagents employed, every succeeding analysis has led 
to different results. 

The Coloring 77 iatter of the Bile —is present during 
health but in small quantity, but in disease it some¬ 
times accumulates so as to form solid masses. When 
pure, it is a reddish-yellow powder, which is scarcely 
soluble in water or in alcohol, but dissolves easily in 
a solution of caustic potash. This solution is of a 


ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 


Il 9 

clear yellow color, but when exposed to the air it be¬ 
comes deep green, absorbing oxygen. This change is 
remarkably produced by nitric acid, and it is indeed 
the reaction by which the presence of the bile in the 
serum of the blood, in the skin, in the urine, and eyes, 
etc., may be shown in cases of jaundice. 

Chyle and Lymph —The nutritive materials extracted 
from the food by the absorbing vessels of the intes¬ 
tines, is thrown into the thoracic duct, where it meets 
with another fluid, which is transmitted to the same 
vessel from all parts of the body by the colorless 
veins or lymphatics. The fluid from the intestines is 
termed chyle ; that from the body is generally termed 
lymph. It is the mixture of these that has alone 
been examined, for the vessels which carry either 
separately are too minute to allow of the extraction of 
their contents in a pure form. 

When taken from the thoracic duct, a few hours 
after a meal, when, probably, the chylous element 
prevails, it is whitish, opaque, liquid, like milk, with 
generally a reddish shade; a short time after separa¬ 
tion from the body, it coagulates • the clot is at first 
pale, but it soon becomes light crimson red ; the milki¬ 
ness of the serum is due to the presence of oil; it 
contains albumen, and coagulates by heat; except 
that it is more dilute, and that the hematosine is for 
the most part absent, the chyle and lymph have the 
same composition as the blood. It appears to vary, 
however, with the nature of the food, as Dr. Prout 
found the chyle of persons fed on vegetables to con- 


120 


undertakers’ manual. 


tain a much smaller quantity of albumen than when 
they had had animal food. 

Dr. Trout also indicates in chyle the presence of a 
substance which he terms incipient albumen, which is 
not coagulated by heat, except after the addition of 
acetic acid; the properties of this form of albumen, 
however, are not fully known. 

Constitution of the Urine in Health and Disease .— 
The nature of this secretion has at all times been an 
object of considerable interest to the chemist, from 
the indications which changes in its composition give 
of diseases of important organs and from the number 
and interest of the different organic substances it con¬ 
tains. As in almost all other branches of animal 
chemistry, Burzelius first determined its composition, 
and lately Lecaner has ascertained with great care the 
limits to which the proportions of its ingredients may 
vary in health, and this established a correct basis of 
comparison for urine in the various conditions of 
diseases. 

Of the Urine in Disease and after Death — Uri?iary 
Calculi. —To the chemist, the indications of disease 
of the urinary and digestive organs, formed by changes 
in the composition of urine, are most valuable. The 
majority of the substances which are taken into the 
circulation, but are incapable of assimilation to our 
organs, are thrown off by this secretion, and hence a 
variety of medicinal substances may be traced to it 
after having been ingested, sometimes quite unaltered, 



ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 


I 2 I 


at others modified in their natures. Thus if alkaline 
salts of organic acids be taken into the stomach, the 
organic material is oxidized, probably during the ac¬ 
tion of respiration, while the alkali passes into the 
urine in the state of carbonate. If, however, the or¬ 
ganic acid be taken uncombined, it escapes decom¬ 
position, and, passing into the urine, produces an 
abundant precipitate of salts of lime. In the case of 
the tartaric acid and oxalic acids, some organic bod¬ 
ies, as aspharagine and the oil of turpentine, are de¬ 
composed, and the products which they form are 
execreted, giving to the urine peculiar odors; in the 
latter case like that of violets. 

The majority of coloring matters are thrown out of 
the system by this secretion, while others are not so 
given off. 

The mineral acids—alcohol, camphor and most 
metallic salts—do not pass into the urine to any 
sensible degree. 

Urine in Diabetes .—The most remarkable change 
in the nature of urine occurs in Diabetes Mellitus, it 
is voided in great quantity ; it is found to contain a 
great quantity of grape, sugar, and very little urea. 

It was supposed that in this disease urea ceased to 
be formed by the system, and was replaced by sugar; 
but it has been shown that, although the quantity of 
urea is very small in any one specimen of urine, yet 
the total quantity is so much increased that in twenty- 
four hours the natural quantity of urea is secreted; 
the secretion of sugar being an act of faulty digestion, 


122 


undertakers’ manual. 


and totally unconnected with the urea. These results 
have been fully confirmed by experience. 

The diabetic urine sometimes contains albumen, 
which arises from complications of other forms of 
disease. 

All that has been said in the former chapter about 
the solid and fluid constituents of the human body 
may, at first sight, and to a great many, seem to be 
superfluous and out of place in a work of this kind. 
It is true that the different modes of preserving bodies, 
as explained in this book, do not require this long 
dissertation on animal chemistry in order to be under¬ 
stood; still, when we consider that the chemicals used 
in these different processes have an object to accom¬ 
plish, it must be granted that a thorough knowledge 
of the constituents of the body, their composition 
and chemical proportion, will, to a great extent, ex¬ 
plain the reason why these same chemicals are used 
in preference to others. 

The secondary object, which is not less important, 
consists in the fact that a thorough knowledge of the 
animal chemistry of the human organism is most 
necessary to understand the different changes which 
take place in the formation of the different juices and 
tissues of the body, when they enter into combination 
with the chemicals, the object of which is to render 
them imputrescible. 

However, the study of these combinations affords 
a simple and clear explanation of the means resorted 
to in order to preserve bodies. 


GANNAL’S PROCESS OF EM¬ 
BALMING. 


WITH MODIFICATIONS. 


HIS process, which has been successfully em- 
ployed in Europe for a long time, for the 
purpose of embalming bodies and for the pres¬ 
ervation of anatomical preparations, is still practised 
extensively, owing to the cheapness of the materials 
used and to the simplicity of the modus operandi. 

The embalming fluid in this instance is composed 
as follows, viz : 


Sulphate of alumina, 4 pounds. 

Arsenious acid, - - - 4 ounces. 

Creasote, 4 ounces. 

Water, - - - - - 1 gallon. 

To prepare this fluid, an explanation of its constitu¬ 
ents is required. 

There are two different kinds of arsenious acid, the 
opaque and the transparent. This latter variety (the 
transparent) should be selected in preference to the 
other, on account of its greater solubility; the acid 
must also be procured in crystals, and not in powder, 
as it will, in the first place, dissolve quicker, and will 
not be liable to be adulterated. The water must 


123 



124 


undertakers’ manual. 


then be heated to 55 0 . and the acid dissolved in it. 
The sulphate of alumina is then to be added, and, 
after being completely dissolved, let the solution cool 
off to the usual temperature ; then add the creasote, 
and, after stirring gently, the solution is ready for 
use. 

Lay the body on an inclined board, as described in 
a former chapter, and, after thoroughly cleansing with 
water and soap, saturate well with a concentrated 
solution of alum; the body should be kept well 
moistened with the solution, as prescribed in the pro¬ 
cesses of embalming already given, until the opera¬ 
tion is completed. 

Through an opening made in the skin of the abdo¬ 
men, and immediately over the transverse part of the 
colon, the bowels and the stomach will then be re¬ 
vealed, which must be emptied of their contents and 
properly cleaned, and injected with the above prep¬ 
aration. 

After the contents of the abdomen have thus been 
treated, the whole abdominal viscera is to be heavily 
sprinkled over with tannic acid, until the acid forms 
a layer about one-half inch in thickness between the 
bowels and the skin of the abdomen ; the flaps of the 
skin are then brought together and neatly sewed up. 

The femoral vein is then opened. The femoral 
vein ascends the thigh in the sheath of the femoral 
artery, and, entering the pelvis beneath Poupart’s 
ligament, becomes the external iliac vein. In the 
lower part of its course, it is situated on the outer 


gannal’s process of embalming. 125 

side of the artery; it then becomes placed behind 
that vessel, and at Poupart’s ligament lies to the inner 
side. It receives the muscular veins and propenda, 
and, through the saphenous opening, the internal 
saphenous vein. 

The blood, in some cases, will issue very freely, and 
the flow of it must continue until the embalming 
fluid makes its appearance. 

To inject the circulatory system, extend the left 
arm at a right angle with the body, and open the 
axilliary artery about three inches from the arm-pit. 
The axilliary artery is a continuation of the sub¬ 
clavian artery ; it passes through the axilla or arm-pit 
into the arm, and is called the axilliary artery; that 
part of its continuation into the upper arm is called 
the brachial artery, and in the fore arm it divides 
into the radial and ulnar arteries, which are dis¬ 
tributed to the hand and fingers. 

Through the opening thus made in the axilliary 
artery two gallons of embalming fluid may be in¬ 
jected, or such quantity as may be found necessary 
to completely fill the arterial and venous systems. 

After the blood has ceased to flow from the open¬ 
ing in the femoral vein, the wounds must be sewed 
up, and the body, anointed with the solution, left to 
dry in a cool, well ventilated place. 

The surface of the body and also the face may be 
mottled in some places with white spots, but the skin 
will soon assume a uniform color, and the blotches 
will disappear. 


I 2 6 


undertakers’ manual. 


After the solution on the body has become suffi¬ 
ciently dry and has penetrated the pores of the skin, 
the excess of moisture must be wiped off with a clean 
towel. 

The nostrils should be hermetically sealed, by in¬ 
troducing into them some cotton, well saturated with 
gum shellac dissolved in alcohol. 

The eyes must be well closed, and, if no other 
means at hand, the lids must be sown together with a 
small circular needle, and some silk, saturated in 
spirits of turpentine. 

The body is then saturated with a thin coating of 
turpentine; and after the turpentine is dry, the cloth¬ 
ing can be put on, and the body is then ready for 
interment. 

As shown by the preceding, this process is very 
simple, and has given satisfactory results in all cases, 
although the amount of embalming liquid and the 
composition thereof vary in all cases, and according 
to the temperature of the season and country. 

For instance, if the body to be embalmed is that of 
a very fleshy person, and it be in the summer season, 
when animal substances are more prone to putrefy 
than at other seasons, the embalming fluid must be 
altered as follows, in its quantitive composition : 

Sulphate of alumina, 6 pounds. 

Arsenious acid, transparent, - 4 ounces. 

Creasote, 6 ounces. 

Water, - - - - - 1 gallon. 


Gannal’s process of embalming. 127 

For the minor parts of this process, as, for instance, 
the closing of the eyes, mouth, etc., the reader is 
referred to previous processes already given in former 
chapters. 

The most reliable composition yet found for em¬ 
balming purposes, and the one which has given the 
most satisfactory results, is the following: 

Alcohol, one gallon; dissolve into it eight ounces 
of corrosive sublimate, and, after complete solution, 
add two pounds of creasote. This solution, for in¬ 
jecting purposes, has never failed to accomplish the 
purpose, and has given the most astonishing results. 
The only objection to its use, but one which does not 
in reality carry any weight with it, is the fact that the 
solution will produce a white scar on the skin of the 
body wherever it may be dropped; but a very mod¬ 
erate amount of care in the use of it will preclude 
the possibility of such an accident. 

The embalming of bodies by injection has so far 
occupied our attention. We will hereafter pass briefly 
in review the process of maceration employed in the 
preservation of bodies. 


EMBALMING BY MACERATION. 


HE process of embalming bodies, as at first 
practised, was founded on the principle of 
complete immersion of the body into some 
bath composed of antiseptics, which, by being ab¬ 
sorbed by the system, rendered the tissues imputres- 
cible, much in the same way as we now preserve 
anatomical preparations by immersing in alcohol. 

At the commencement of this century a process of 
embalming was brought out in Europe, and succeeded 
very well for some time; but after a certain period, 
Mr. Gannal and others inaugurated a new system of 
preserving the dead, and the process of maceration 
was abandoned, and has not since been revived to 
any extent. The following is the manner of treat¬ 
ment to which a body was subjected in the above 
process: 

The body was washed thoroughly with soap and 
water; then the abdomen was opened and the sternum 
raised; the thoracic as well as the abdominal viscera 
was then removed altogether, as also the brain. 

The body was then immersed for one week in a 
strong solution of alum and nitrate of potash; the 
body was then taken out and the cavities filled with 
tow and powdered arsenic ; the bowels, lungs, liver, 
etc., in fact all the viscera, were buried separately. 

128 



EMBALMING BY MACERATOIN. 


I29 


The body was then completely buried in dry sand 
for the space of ten days, to absorb all the moisture 
contained in the tissues, and was then dressed in the 
funeral habiliments and placed in a leaden coffin, 
hermetically sealed; a small, thick glass, immediately 
over the face, allowed the friends to obtain a view of 
the features. 

This process has been found objectionable for a 
good many reasons; in the first place, the eviscer¬ 
ating of the body is a repulsive feature of it, and not 
to be had recourse to when less barbarous means are 
at hand; secondly, the skin of the body assumes a 
yellow and wrinkled appearance, which, if it does not 
entirely destroy the cast of the features, alters the 
general appearance so much as to render them very 
different from the natural appearance. 

At any rate, the method of preserving bodies by 
the above means has entirely fallen into disuse, and 
as, with our perfected improvements in this branch of 
the undertaking business, we are able to do away with 
the most repugnant features of it, this system has 
been superseded by the less objectionable and more 
effective arterial injections. 


LAWS OF HEALTH. 


NDERTAKERS, like physicians and all those 
who may be called at any time of the day or 
night to make use of their physical and mental 
faculties, whose duties compel them to breathe the 
foul effluvia of the sick chamber, or the noxious gases 
generated by the dead, even to come into direct 
contact with every variety of contagious or epidemic 
disease—such professionals find it to their interest 
and physical welfare to observe certain rules of living 
in accordance with the requirements of their calling. 

It is a matter of great importance that their diet, 
clothing and habits be regulated by certain laws, 
which will, to a great extent, reduce the dangers 
to which they are exposed in the discharge of their 
duties. 

DIET. 

Man is less uniform in his diet, and suffers more in 
consequence of it, than any other animal. All other 
animals are directed by instinct to select only those 
substances which are best adapted to their wants. 
Man is endowed with reason to enable him, by the 
exercise of thought and reflection, to make his choice 

of food. He should, therefore, select his daily food 

130 



LAWS OF HEALTH. 


13 I 

with as much forethought and care as he would 
select the materials for his dwelling. He should 
consider, not what will gratify his taste, but what will 
build up and strengthen his bodily structure, and 
secure most perfectly the highest and most perma¬ 
nent enjoyment of all his faculties. 

The kind of food which each individual should 
select is by no means uniform; the climate, the 
season of the year, the occupation, the temperament, 
the age, the habits of life, and various other circum¬ 
stances which might be mentioned, demand modifica¬ 
tions of diet. 

MODIFICATIONS OF AGE. 

The constituent elements of the body are not found 
in the same relative proportions at different periods 
of life, or in different individuals of the same age. 
In middle life the muscular system predominates, and 
ihe body is remarkable for the compactness of its 
fibres, its strength, and its power of endurance. 

In the child there is an excess of fluids, which 
renders the body more plump and round and the 
form beautiful, though more frail and delicate than 
at a later period. In advanced age, the soft tissues 
become greatly diminished, and the form wrinkled 
and wasted. 


CLIMATE. 

The inhabitants of cold climates require those ar¬ 
ticles of food which produce the largest amount of 


1 3 2 


undertakers’ manual. 


animal heat, such as oil, tallow and fat meats, which 
contain from sixty-six to eighty per cent, of carbon. 
The natives of the arctic regions consume enormous 
quantities of fat and oil, and seem to relish them as 
great luxuries; the inhabitants of tropical regions 
subsist mainly on rice, fruits, vegetables and lean 
meats. It would be impossible to live in Greenland 
on the plaintain and rice of the Hindoo, or in Hin- 
dostan on the seal fat and whale oil of the Green¬ 
lander. 

In temperate climates we require different kinds of 
food at different seasons of the year. In winter we 
consume larger quantities of fat meat and carbona¬ 
ceous food, and in summer more fruit and vegetables. 
Were we to indulge in the summer in the same diet 
which we might find highly conducive to health in 
the winter, the system would soon become burdened 
with an excess of carbonaceous matter, and induce 
congestion and inflammatory diseases. It is therefore 
highly important that each person should possess 
some knowledge of the properties of different articles 
of diet, and select from time to time those which he 
may think most suitable to his own organization. 

Different substances are nutritious in proportion as 
they yield, when digested, those elements which are 
found to exist in the different tissues of the body. 
Animals do not possess the power of forming new 
elements, or of converting one element into another, 
and it necessarily follows that the elements of their 
growth and nutrition must be derived from the food 
which they take. 


LAWS OF HEALTH. 


133 


The largest part of nearly all the substances which 
make up the human body are composed of oxygen, 
hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon, and different sub¬ 
stances are regarded as nutritious in proportion as 
they furnish these essential elements of our organiza¬ 
tion. In general, those substances may be regarded 
as the most important articles of diet which furnish, 
with the greatest facility of digestion, the largest 
amount of these elements. 

Milk is regarded, perhaps correctly, as the plainest 
and simplest kind of food. Cow’s milk is composed 
of: 


Casein, - 

- 4.48 

Butter, - 

3- x 3 

Sugar of milk, - 

- 4-77 

Various salts, 

.60 

Water, - 

0 

0 

00 

1 

1 


Milk, being furnished by nature as the only food for 
the young of the mammalia during a certain period of 
their existence, contains all the elements necessary to 
the nutrition and the growth of the body. Out of 
the casein are formed the albumen and fibrin of the 
blood. The butter serves for the formation of fat, 
and contributes, with the sugar, to the support of 
animal heat, by yielding carbon and hydrogen to be 
burnt in the lungs. The earthy salts (phosphate of 
lime, etc.) are necessary for the development of the 
bones, the iron required for the blood, corpuscles and 
the hair. 


'3 4 


undertakers’ manual. 


In this country, meat constitutes an important part 
of the diet of almost every family. As a general 
rule, animal food is more easily digested, contains a 
greater amount of nutriment, and is more stimulating 
than any of the varieties of vegetable food. 

As minuteness of division and tenderness of fibre 
facilitate digestion, young meats are more tender than 
old; thus, roasted pig is more speedily digested than 
broiled pork; steak and boiled lamb sooner than 
boiled mutton. Still, there are some exceptions to 
the digestibility of young meats, veal, and with some 
persons lamb, are slower of digestion than beef or 
mutton. 

The vegetable kingdom greatly exceeds the animal 
in the number and variety of the aliments which it 
furnishes to man. It is well known that the four 
essential elements, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and 
nitrogen, which form an important part of all animal 
compounds, are also to be found in great abundance 
in all vegetable compounds; it is owing to this fact 
that different animals are nourished equally well on 
an exclusive diet of either. The lion, tiger and other 
animals which live exclusively on animal food, give 
no evidence of being better nourished than the deer, 
the ox, and animals which subsist wholly on vegetable 
food; but the apparatus for digestion in each class is 
constructed with an evident adaptation to the kind of 
diet on which the different animals subsist. 

In man the digestive apparatus is more extensive 
than in flesh-eating animals, but is less complicated 


LAWS OF HEALTH. 


135 


than in those which are confined to vegetable food 
alone. Man is therefore omnivorous, both in his 
structure and in his habits. 

But the universal tendency of mankind gives pref¬ 
erence to a mixed diet. The most perfect develop¬ 
ment and the greatest individual vigor are to be 
found among those races in which a mixed diet is the 
prevalent habit. 

During the warm season vegetables and fruits may 
be made the means of great mischief or of great 
good. Perfectly ripe fruits or vegetables are highly 
useful and well adapted to the wants of the system at 
that season of the year; yet they may become, and 
often are, a prolific source of disease. So frequently 
is this kind of food a cause of bowel complaint that 
city physicians discard it wholly from the diet of 
children not under their immediate supervision. 

Vegetables and early fruits that have been long 
exposed, in a malarious or filthy market, or in trans¬ 
portation, are unquestionably dangerous articles of 
food for all persons. But the injurious consequences 
which follow the use of ripe and wholesome vegetables 
and fruit are, in almost all cases, the results of impru¬ 
dence. They are either in an improper condition to 
be used as food, or the quantity is too great, or they 
are taken at improper hours. 

In either case there is a great change in the usual 
diet. Instead of a lack of refrigerant food, there is 
now an excess of it. Active fermentation takes place 
in the process of digestion, and results in serious 


i3 6 


undertakers’ manual. 


derangement in the alimentary canal, which leads to 
cholera morbus, diarrhoea or dysentery. 

During warm weather vegetables and fruit are to 
be regarded as safe only when used as an accompani¬ 
ment to other food; they are not adapted to meet all 
the wants of the system, and therefore should not 
constitute a full meal at any time. In the country, 
where this kind of food is enjoyed daily in a proper 
condition to be eaten, injurious consequences are 
quite rare, and then they are the result of an excess, 
or of an indulgence of an appetite at irregular hours. 

Much care is also requisite to prevent imperfect 
mastication of this kind of food. Orange peel and 
the skins and stones of cherries, plums and grapes 
are wholly indigestible, and often cause serious mis¬ 
chief when swallowed. Cucumbers, green potatoes, 
green fruit of all kinds should be wholly discarded 
from the diet. 

DRINKS. 

Water in some form is more essential to our exist¬ 
ence than any of the solid aliments we have yet 
considered, and is next in importance, in the per¬ 
formance of the vital process, to the air we breathe. 
Water enters into the formation of all the various 
tissues of the body, and constitutes a very large 
proportion of the human system. The blood con¬ 
tains about eighty per cent., the flesh about seventy- 
six per cent., of water; and of the entire human 
body, at least seventy-five per cent., or three-fourths 






LAWS OF HEALTH. 


1 37 


of its weight, is water. The most important purposes 
in the animal economy are accomplished through this 
medium. 

In the blood, the solid vital elements are trans¬ 
ported by the medium of water from one part of the 
body to another, in a form and condition to promote 
the vital changes which are constantly taking place. 

In exhalation, secretion and absorption, the pres¬ 
ence of water is indispensable. It acts as a solvent 
of various alimentary substances, and thus assists the 
stomach in the act of digestion ; though when taken 
in large quantities immediately after eating it dilutes 
the gastric juice and hinders digestion. 

Water enters more or less largely into the composi¬ 
tion of all alimentary substances, and is taken into the 
stomach in a pure state, or forms the principal part of 
the various kinds of drinks in use. 

Water is unquestionably the natural drink of adults, 
and meets the wants of the body more perfectly than 
any of the artificial liquids which are regarded as 
improvements on water. Whenever a man is left to 
the cravings of instinct, unbiased by a viscious appe¬ 
tite, he invariably resorts to water as the natural 
means to quench his thirst, cool his system, and 
invigorate his wasting strength. 

When we say that water is the only fitting drink 
for man’s daily and habitual use, we are sustained by 
the facts of the case. Water is the only liquid which 
is necessary to the formation, development and sup¬ 
port of his frame ; it is equal to all the exigencies of 


138 ' undertakers’ manual. 

thirst, for the relief of present inconvenience, and of 
dilution, by mixing with his blood and other fluids, to 
prevent further sufferings and disease. 

DIGESTIBILITY OF ALIMENTARY SUB¬ 
STANCES. 

The facility with which alimentary substances are 
digested, depends on a variety of circumstances. 
Some kinds of food are naturally more difficult of 
digestion than others. This is especially the case 
with oily and fatty substances, which contain a large 
amount of nutritive matter in a concentrated form. 
Tenderness of fibre renders the digestive process 
more easy; and, therefore, all those circumstances 
which affect the texture of flesh have an influence on 
its digestibility. Violent muscular exertion previous 
to the death of the animal renders the flesh more 
easy of digestion. The flesh of young animals, though 
more tender than the flesh of adult animals, is fre¬ 
quently not so easily digested. Of adult animals, the 
youngest will be found more tender and digestible 
than old animals. Vegetables are generally more 
slowly digested than meat. Minute division facili¬ 
tates digestion; hence, if food is properly masticated, 
the process of digestion will be more rapid than 
otherwise. 

Some variety of food is unquestionably more agree¬ 
able and more conducive to health than a diet limited 
to one or a few simple articles. Accordingly, we find 


LAWS OF HEALTH. 


139 


that, whenever the condition of men will admit of it, 
they universally make use of more or less variety of 
alimentary substances, and that variety increases very 
much in proportion to the wealth and ability which 
exists to gratify the desires of the palate. 

Too great a variety of alimentary substances is 
always injurious when it becomes a temptation to 
excess. Thus, a much larger amount of food is 
taken than the wants of the body require, and more 
than the digestive organs have the capacity to dis¬ 
pose of. 

It is impossible to point out to each individual the 
kind of diet which will suit best. This, to some 
extent, must be a matter of personal observation and 
experience. Peculiarities of constitution, habits of 
life, age, sex, etc., require modifications of diet in 
accordance with the natural wants of each individual. 

Abstinence from all that is found or suspected to 
be injurious, uniform hours and temperate indulgence 
should be observed by all who value lasting health 
more than the mere temporary gratification of the 
palate. 

CLOTHING. 

Dress does not make the man, but it is often indic¬ 
ative of his character. Some men dress in such a 
manner as to indicate that they estimate themselves 
by the cost per yard of the garments they wear; 
others dress so as to carry an impression of perfect 
indifference to the feelings and sentiments of those 


140 undertakers’ manual. 

around them. Both are wrong. Our personal ap¬ 
pearance, which depends to a great extent on dress, 
is a matter of some consequence ; and the man who 
wholly disregards the customs and habits of others in 
this respect will be very likely to be indifferent to the 
sentiments and feelings of society in other particu¬ 
lars, and at least may be in danger of passing for less 
than his true worth. But the fop, whose only accom¬ 
plishment is the dress he wears, is usually despised as 
thoughtless and vain. 

The style of dress which is most to be commended 
is that which will not draw attention either for its 
gaudiness or its plainness. The external appearance 
of our clothing should always be regarded as less 
important than its practical uses, inasmuch as bodily 
health is infinitely more important than personal ap¬ 
pearance. 

During the warm season we require clothing which 
will protect the body without retaining too large an 
amount of heat. For this purpose we prefer, in sum¬ 
mer, materials which are good conductors of heat. 
Cotton and worsted, though not as good conductors 
as linen, are usually found sufficiently cool for the 
temperature of the Northern States, where the climate 
is so changeable that there are but few days in the 
season when linen can be worn with safety. 

Winter clothing should correspond somewhat with 
the exposure, both in quality and amount. The 
object to be sought in winter clothing is, not to 
produce heat, but to retain the heat which the body 
is constantly evolving. 


LAWS OF HEALTH. 


141 


Woolen is one of our best non-conductors of heat, 
and all garments formed from this material are re¬ 
garded as warm clothing. All kinds of furs are good 
non-conductors, but they are liable to two serious 
objections: First, furs are too warm for ordinary 
exposure, and cause too great a change of tempera¬ 
ture when they are removed; second, they prevent 
the escape of perspiration, and confine it within the 
garments usually worn inside of the fur. 

The amount of clothing should depend on the con¬ 
stitutional vigor and the exposure of each individual. 
In doors we require less than during an out doors 
exposure; less when taking active exercise than when 
inactive. The amount of clothing, therefore, should 
be sufficient to insure a constant and uniform protec¬ 
tion against sudden changes. 

It is especially injurious to bundle up the face and 
neck with fur collars and shawls, which are so warm 
that colds will be induced when they are removed. 

In a changeable climate, the constant wearing of 
flannel under garments next to the skin should be 
recommended. Flannel absorbs the perspiration and 
preserves a uniform temperature of the surface of the 
body, and prevents that sense of chilliness which we 
are liable to experience without flannels. 


EMBALMING PROCESS 


OF WORTH AND DURAND. 


' 7 T HIS process, often employed in Europe, has 
tfy given very satisfactory results, and seems to 
deserve a good deal of attention. The mode 
of proceeding differs in some particulars from the 
methods already given ; also the preparations used in 
this process are very different from the others, al¬ 
though the principles upon which it is founded are 
the same. 

The solution employed as an injecting fluid in this 
process is as follows : 


Arsenious acid, - - - - 3 ounces. 

Carbonate of soda, 4 ounces 

Water, - - - - - 3 quarts. 


Dissolve the arsenious acid and soda in hot water, 
in a glass or porcelain vessel, and, after solution, let 
the liquor cool off; then add enough of water to 
make up a gallon of the mixture. In the making and 
using of this preparation a great amount of care 
should be exercised, as it must be borne in mind that 
arsenious acid is a violent poison. 


142 



EMBALMING PROCESS. 


*43 


The stomach is then opened, as described in former 
chapters, and emptied of its contents; the bowels, 
also, must be subjected to the same process. The 
trachea is punctured, and the bronchial tubes com¬ 
pletely filled with the solution through the opening 
thus made. The stomach and intestines should also 
be injected with the solution, and also the surround¬ 
ing parts. 

The main point of injection is the common carotid 
artery. Before injecting the stomach and bowels, 
and before replacing the intestines into the abdominal 
cavity, the inferior vena cava is punctured a little 
below the renal vein, and the flow of blood allowed 
to take place in the cavity, from whence it may be 
either sponged or pumped out. 

The right carotid artery is selected as the point of 
injection, instead of the left, for the following rea¬ 
sons : The right common carotid artery is shorter 
than the left; it is also more anterior, and, in conse¬ 
quence of proceeding from a branch instead of from 
the main trunk, is larger than its fellow. 

The common carotid artery in the neck is inclosed 
in a fibrous sheath, which also contains the internal 
jugular vein lying to the outer side of the artery, and 
the pneumogastric nerve, which lies between and be¬ 
hind both ; the sheath rests on the vertebral column. 
To the inner side of the carotid is the trachea and 
larynx; to its outer side, and inclosed in its sheath, 
the jugular vein. It may be inferred from the above 
that the jugular vein in the neck is in close proximity 


144 


undertakers’ manual. 


with the carotid artery, and great care must be exer^ 
cised in puncturing the artery not to injure the vein 
lying at its side. 

After the injection has proceeded upwards, until 
the arteries of the head and neck are filled, a very 
small puncture may be cut into the jugular vein, and 
the blood allowed to escape at that point and for a 
few minutes, until the flow decreases, when the vein 
may be tied up. 

The nozzle of the injector is then turned in a 
downward direction, and the injection continued until 
a sufficient quantity of the liquid has been injected. 

The artery is then tied up, and the wound neatly 
brought together and sewed up. The blood which 
may have escaped from the vena cava is taken out of 
the abdominal cavity, and the stomach and bowels 
injected with the solution. Some of the same solu¬ 
tion may also be poured around the bowels before 
and after their being replaced in their former posi¬ 
tion, and the opening in the abdomen is then closed. 

Another preparation, which has been employed with 
some success, was as follows : 

Hyposulphate of soda, - - 12 ounces. 

Sulphuric acid, - 6 ounces. 

Water, 1 gallon. 

The sulphuric acid liberates the hyposulphurous 
acid, which immediately decomposes into sulphur and 
sulphurous acid. It is to the antiseptic properties of 
the sulphurous acid that this preparation owes its 
preserving qualities. 


EMBALMING PROCESS. 


*45 


A strong solution of bichromate of potash has also 
been used several times for an injection, but the 
result has not always proved satisfactory, as the 
liquid, when concentrated, is too much of an oxyd- 
izing agent. 



MISCELL A N EO-U S. 


m HEN the services of the undertaker are re- 
w quired, the party or parties—generally some 
I friend of the deceased—who may have charge 
of the arrangements will, in a few words, make the 
undertaker acquainted with the nature of the case 
and the particular duties he is expected to perform. 

Sometimes they will there and then select the style 
of case or casket, order the carriages, and arrange all 
the other details of the funeral. At other times, 
again, these particular points are to be decided upon 
only after consulting the wishes of the family in this 
respect. 

In either case it is the undertaker’s most imperative 
duty to hasten to the house of mourning with all the 
implements necessary for washing, laying out, dress¬ 
ing, and if necessary preserving the body. That is, 
where the party has died at his own house; for, in 
many cases, where death has taken place either at a 
hotel, boarding house, or any other place of a like 
public character, the proprietor thereof may wish the 
remains removed, at as short notice as convenient, to 
the rooms of the undertaker, where the remains may 
be properly cared for without any annoyance or dis¬ 
comfort to the other inmates. 

146 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


*47 


Before the undertaker brings in any of the appli¬ 
ances necessary to the laying out of the corpse, it will 
be well for him to make his entrance unincumbered, 
and be introduced to the persons present. He must 
also view the remains, and make such arrangements 
or alteration in the furniture of the room as may be 
necessary to facilitate the operation of laying out, 
washing, etc. 

The assistant may then be called in, and he shall 
dispose of the funeral implements according to the di¬ 
rections given by the undertaker. After the prelim¬ 
inaries have thus been disposed of, none but the 
intimate friends or relatives of the deceased are 
allowed to remain while the work of dressing the 
corpse is being performed. This is subservient to 
the wish and good judgment of the undertaker, who 
is supposed to be vested with powers of expelling 
those whose presence is not justifiable, or retaining 
others who may have claim to the privilege.' 

It should be here borne in mind that the work 
must be done as silently and noiselessly as the na¬ 
ture of the case admits of; and that any subject of 
discourse between the undertaker and his assistant, 
not immediately connected with the matter in hand, 
is very much out of place, and will be regarded by 
the persons present as a lack of good manners, not to 
say a disrespectful behavior. 

Let it be also remembered that a mortuary cham¬ 
ber is not the place fitly chosen to consummate the 
ulterior arrangements of the funeral, but some other 


148 


undertakers’ manual. 


apartment in the house, or even the undertaker’s own 
office, are the proper places to perfect subsequent 
proceedings. 

The laying out and dressing of the body being 
completed, the assistant may retire, after having care¬ 
fully removed whatever articles may have been used 
in the process; while the undertaker, who may have 
some directions to give about the proper care of the 
body until the time of burial, or some instructions to 
receive from the persons in charge of the funeral, will 
wait until every point is settled; or some other time 
and place may be selected for the purpose. 

It is not the sphere of the undertaker, especially at 
such time, to press with questions the parties whom 
he may chance to serve ; but he will abide his time 
and accept their decisions with becoming respect, 
unless some imperative object should make it incum¬ 
bent upon him to hasten the proceedings, as, for 
instance, the danger of contagion from some infec¬ 
tious disease, or some other equally important reason. 

In the matter of dressing the body, especially if it 
be that of a lady, this duty is usually performed by 
some lady attached to the establishment, or by some 
lady friend of the deceased, although the undertaker 
is often called to perform this office himself. It is at 
such a time that good taste and refinement will show 
conspicuous in the professional undertaker. 

The same may be said about the floral decorations 
and the ornamenting of the casket; a certain amount 
of good sound common sense and discrimination 
should be used in both cases. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


I 49 

Some parties will consider it a mark of good taste 
to have but a few elegant and well chosen gold or 
silver trimmings, while others would consider a super¬ 
fluity of these as needful to the complete decoration 
of the casket. This part of the business must be 
well understood by the undertaker, and it requires a 
certain amount of tact to pamper successfully to the 
taste of the different parties he may be called upon 
to serve. 

The remains, after being placed in the coffin a few 
hours previous to the time of the funeral, do not 
require much of his attention, but he is expected to 
be on hand at the specified time. As the hearse and 
carriages arrive at the house of mourning and take 
the places allotted to them without confusion or un¬ 
necessary noise, the undertaker will see that each 
carriage driver has his place assigned in the cortege 
and observes the directions given him. 

The assistant stands ready to receive the casket 
and help the pall bearers in placing it properly in the 
hearse; he will also see that each carriage approaches 
in time and receives the occupants, as his employer 
may direct. Should the religious ceremonies be per¬ 
formed in the house of the deceased, his duties will 
end there until the cemetery is reached; should, how¬ 
ever, the services be performed at some public place 
of worship, it will be his duty to precede the arrival 
of the procession, to see that everything is in readi¬ 
ness, to give timely warning to the sexton, and to 
assist in removing the casket from the hearse; also in 


i^o undertakers’ manual. 

preserving order in the loading and unloading of 
carriages; while the undertaker takes the lead in the 
carrying of the remains into the church, and will see 
that the casket is laid up with proper care at the 
place appointed. 

The undertaker is expected to occupy a position 
not far remote from the officiating clergyman, so as to 
be within hearing of the latter should it be necessary 
for him to request some service or make some in¬ 
quiries. 

The funeral services over, the undertaker is ex¬ 
pected to lead the march out of the church, preceding 
the casket bearers, but following the minister, who, in 
many instances, will walk at the head as far as the 
door. 

The assistant will be found ready to assist in plac¬ 
ing the casket in the hearse, as before mentioned, and 
will also have the carriages move up in the right 
order, open and close the carriage doors, while the 
undertaker ushers the occupants into the vehicles. 

The undertaker may also require the services of an 
assistant at the grave, but this will depend in great 
measure upon the nature of the funeral itself, whether 
it be of a certain magnitude, or if it be one of less 
importance. 

This brief elucidation of the duties of an under¬ 
taker in the discharge of his functions is not given as 
a general rule to be strictly adhered to without any 
exception, but merely as a ground plan to work upon, 
and to be subject to different modifications, as cir¬ 
cumstances may require. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


151 

One undisputable fact is, that in the general man¬ 
agement of a funeral pageant, and for the better and 
more systematic working of the details, especially if 
the funeral is one on a large scale, the services of a 
vvell trained assistant will be found almost indispen¬ 
sable to the undertaker, and will be conducive of the 
happiest results in securing perfect system, dispatch; 
and also in preventing delays and mistakes, which 
might otherwise happen where the responsibility and 
the smooth working of the whole rests upon one man. 

The laying out, washing, dressing, etc., of a corpse, 
under any and every circumstance, ought to be so 
systematized and arranged, that either the undertaker 
or his assistant may be able to perform these duties 
alone and singly, with ease and promptness, should 
circumstances so require. 

As the undertaker is supposed to understand the 
wants required by different cases, it will be his duty, 
so soon as he is acquainted with the nature of the 
cause of death, to take such steps as his experience 
will suggest, as regards the safety of those who may 
trust him with the care of properly disposing of the 
remains. 

Should the disease be of a contagious or infectious 
character, it will be incumbent upon the undertaker 
to see that perfect ventilation be established in the 
chamber where the body lies; that all cloths which 
are removed from the corpse be disposed of in a 
cautious manner; that the bed-clothes be either car¬ 
ried immediately out of the room and exposed outside 


!5 2 


undertakers’ manual. 


to the light and heat of the sun, or be burned up, if 
the character of the disease be so dangerous as to 
require it. 

He will see that proper means of disinfecting the 
house be used, so as to a great extent neutralize, if 
not completely destroy, the germ of the epidemic. 

A good preparation to combat noxious and poison¬ 
ous miasma, besides the other disinfecting liquids 
which have been enumerated in previous chapters, 
consists of the following: 

Nitrate of potash (saltpetre), - 6 ounces. 

Water, ----- 2 quarts. 

Sulphuric acid, - - - - 4 ounces. 

Dissolve the nitrate of potash in the water. If the 
water be moderately warm it will dissolve quicker. 
For this purpose use a large china wash bowl (no 
metallic vessel), which must hold at least twice the 
amount of the solution, or about one gallon. When 
the solution is completed, gradually pour into it the 
sqlphuric acid ; it will effervesce, and care must be 
taken not to let any of it fall on the carpet, as it will 
not only destroy the color but also the texture of the 
fabric ; the effervescence will, however, soon subside, 
and the foul effluvia of the room will soon lose its 
offensive odor. 

This fumigation has been successfully employed in 
Southern cities, in times of severe epidemics. 

Although it may be questioned by some whether or 
no these measures come within the sphere of the 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


*53 


undertaker’s duties, it is by no means a reason why 
they should be discarded by our professionals, or why 
undertakers should not be familiar with all the means 
that will tend to enhance the success of the profes¬ 
sion, as well as to promote the comfort and safety of 
those whom they may be called upon to serve; be¬ 
sides the credit they will receive from the family for 
their well directed efforts in securing their approval. 


CHLORIDE OF LEAD AS A DEODORIZER 
AND DISINFECTANT. 

Dr. R. H. Goolden calls attention in the Lancet to 
the value of chloride of lead, which he says is the 
most powerful deodorizer and disinfectant. To pre¬ 
pare it for use, he directs to take half a drachm of 
nitrate of lead, dissolve in a pint or more of boiling 
water; then dissolve two drachms of common salt in 
a bucket of water, and mix the two solutions to¬ 
gether ; allow the sediment to subside. 

The clear supernatant fluid will be a solution of 
chloride of lead. A cloth dipped in this solution and 
hung up in a room will sweeten a fetid atmosphere 
instantaneously; or if the solution be sprinkled over 
the bed-clothes or clothing of a fast decomposing 
body, it will produce a like result. 

Even the tarnishing of gold and silver ornaments 
may be prevented, by a rag dipped in the solution 
being hung up in the room or window where they are 
exposed. 


T 54 


undertakers’ manual. 


He relates some striking instances of the instanta¬ 
neous and efficient action of this preparation. 


DANGERS OF ABSORPTION OF CARBOLIC 

ACID. 

Undertakers and others using carbolic acid to some 
extent should always use extreme caution in the 
handling of it. 

The carelessness with which certain papers take up 
some popular recipe is not always without its dangers. 
For instance, there appeared lately in some public 
print an article upon the poison of vipers, which is 
very similar to that of the virus from a putrefying 
corpse; the article recommended that carbolic acid 
should be immediately introduced into the wound, 
the acid to be mixed with alcohol in the proportion 
of two to one. Observe the off-hand manner with 
which a toxic agent is spoken of, as if it were the 
most inoffensive thing in the world. 

In order to try the experiment, a cat was selected, 
upon whose skin, denuded of hair alone, a saturated 
solution of carbolic acid in alcohol, with an equal 
quantity of water, was rubbed; this produced no 
effect; but when the same solution was rubbed into a 
scratch upon the end of the nose two or three times, 
the animal fell immediately into convulsions and very 
shortly succumbed. Prussic acid could not have 
acted more promptly. The moral of this experiment 
is obvious. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


*55 


DISINFECTANTS. 

Dr. Baxter has executed a great number of very- 
careful experiments, with a view to testing the differ¬ 
ent disinfecting properties of the so-called disinfect¬ 
ants commonly used. Evidence was adduced to show 
that carbolic acid, sulphur, permanganate of potash 
and chlorine are all endowed with true disinfectant 
properties, though in very varying degrees. The ef¬ 
fectual disinfectant operation of chlorine and per¬ 
manganate of potash appeared to depend far more on 
the nature of the medium through which the particles 
of infective matter are distributed than on the specific 
character of the particles themselves. 

A virulent liquid cannot be regarded as certainly 
and completely disinfected by sulphur, unless it has 
been rendered permanently and thoroughly acid. No 
virulent liquid can be considered disinfected by car¬ 
bolic acid, unless it contains at least two per cent., by 
weight, of the pure acid. 

When disinfectants are mixed with a liquid, it is 
very important to make sure that they are thoroughly 
incorporated with it, and that no solid matters cap¬ 
able of shielding contagion from immediate contact 
with its destroyer be overlooked. 

Aerial disinfection, as commonly practised in the 
sick room, is either useless or positively objectionable, 
owing to the false sense of security it is calculated to 
produce. 

To make the air of a room smell strongly of car¬ 
bolic acid, by scattering carbolic powder about the 


undertakers’ manual. 


J 5 6 

floor, or of chlorine, by placing a tray of chloride of 
lime in a corner, is, so far as the specific destruction 
of contagion is concerned, an utterly futile proceeding. 

The practical result of these experiments goes to 
prove, first, that dry heat, when it can be applied, is 
probably the most perfect of all disinfectants; second, 
that the old plan of stopping up crevices and fumigat¬ 
ing with sulphur and charcoal is more efficacious than 
any other proceeding with more modern disinfectants; 
third, that the use of carbolic vapor for disinfecting 
purposes should be abandoned, owing to the relative 
feebleness and uncertainty of its action. 


A RELIABLE SIGN OF DEATH. 

This sign consists in the absence of contraction of 
the pupil, after puncture of the cornea and evacuation 
of the aqueous humor. When the pupil contracts, life 
is still present; when it remains immovable, it is a 
certain sign of death. The puncture of the cornea 
may be made with a cataract knife, or even an ordi¬ 
nary lancet. It is a harmless operation. 


RAPID DECAY OF THE HUMAN 

STRUCTURE. 

f 

J NDER this heading, we will present to our readers 
\]Ff an essay upon the causes of the dissolution of 
the human body. The writer, Mr. W. W. Ball, 
of Bangor, Michigan, who published the following in 
The Casket of March, 1877, has kindly allowed us to 
republish it, for the benefit of those who have not 
read it, and also as a proof that the theories advanced 
in this volume cannot be refuted. We give the article 
at length. The statements advanced in the essay, also 
the course of treatment adopted in the preservation 
of bodies, will be found to possess great similarity 
with the different methods herein given. 

By W. W. Ball. 

As soon as the vital action ceases, decomposition 
ensues in the substances which were before the very 
elements of life, viz : blood, lymph, chyme, chyle and 
gastric juice, become active agents in its destruction. 

In the blood, the most important agent during life, 
as soon as life ceases it becomes one of the first to 
produce that blackened, putrid and sloughing condi¬ 
tion we find shortly after death. The blood being 

i57 


undertakers’ manual. 


158 

left in every part of the body, it breaks up and forms 
new compounds, of which only a general outline is 
attainable, for want of definite chemical analysis or 
microscopical observation. The fibrine and serum 
separate; the former, which contains most of the red 
corpuscles, albumen, saline and fatty substances, glu- 
tinates or coagulates on the sides of the vessels them¬ 
selves, while the serum permeates the surrounding 
tissues, uniting with oxygen carried off from the 
pulmonary structure during life, and these, having an 
affinity for the tissues, form those compounds termed 
sulphuretted and carburetted hydrogen gases, giving 
rise to that effluvium which characterize deceased 
bodies. 


CONDITION OF THE BLOOD. 

After death the blood is found in two forms. This 
is owing to certain diseases and circumstances. The 
first is encountered when death has ensued after a 
long stage of sickness. The vital fluids become ex¬ 
hausted by disease, and the organs of circulation 
become too weak to perform their office of circulating 
the fluid they contain ; hence, dissolution takes place 
in the blood from want of constant and rapid action. 
Thus the fibrine becomes lodged and coagulated in 
the veins and capillary system. The fibrine and 
serum separate, leaving the fibrine coagulated or 
clotted, and the serum, a transparent, fatty or oily 
liquid, permeates the tissues of the flesh. Usually 
the arteries are found without any blood remaining in 


.RAPID DECAY OF THE HUMAN STRUCTURE. 159 

them. In instances of this kind there will be no 
difficulty encountered from the corpse turning black, 
as the gases cannot force the blood to the surface 
into the capillary system, because the fibrine is lodged 
elsewhere, but the flesh may turn brown or saffron 
color to some extent. 

DIFFICULT CASES. 

The second condition of the blood is found when 
death resulted from accident or short duration of 
sickness. In these instances there is usually a large 
abundance of fluids remaining in the system. These 
foster fermentation in every structure, and evolve the 
gases so rapidly as to cause the cavities of the thorax 
and abdomen to become extended to their utmost 
capacity with gases that induce the blood to leave the 
vessels in the thorax and appear at the surface in the 
capillary system. In this instance the fibrine and 
serum of the blood remain together in an inky or 
eccymosed condition. 

Thus it is observed that the gases are so rapidly 
evolved by the destructive fluids, that before the 
fibrine coagulates it is forced from the vessels of the 
thorax (especially the superior vena cava), and caused 
to appear above the surface into the neck and face. 
The great pressure of the gases depresses the vessels of 
th thorax in the same manner that it does the stom¬ 
ach when purging takes place, which occurs invariably 
whenever the stomach contains any movable matter. 
The lymph, chyle and chyme, which are the same or 


i6o undertakers’ manual. 

similar, as soon as death ensues take on new molecular 
changes ; the lymph especially, which is retained in 
all the glands and vessels of the lymphatic system, 
enters into the process of decomposition, fostering 
putrefaction in the whole structure; while the gastric 
juice, a peculiar fluid so subservient to digestion, 
which affects the food only during life, immediately 
attacks the substances of the stomach when life is 
extinct, in the same or similar manner as it affected 
the food during life, corroding and completely de¬ 
stroying everything with which it comes in contact, as 
there is no vitality to resist its action. Elements 
having other affinities, and the organism generally, 
hurry back to their primeval state. Nature knows no 
delays. The work to be done is to disorganize the 
body and destroy its form. This is the work of heat, 
moisture, air and germs in unison, causing the fluids 
and tissues of the body to decay rapidly, while the 
albumenoid matters are decomposed into fetid gases 
escaping into the air, which in a short time accom¬ 
plish the work of dissolution, leaving the body a mass 
of corruption and the receptacle of myriads of germs 
of microscopic beings. The corpse is their natural 
aliment, and death their chosen laboratory. 

The products of putrefying animal matter are car¬ 
bonic acid, water, ammonia and carburetted hydrogen 
gases, which are generally mixed with various portions 
of phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen gases. 
The blackened or mortified appearance in those in¬ 
stances is usually caused by the eccymosed or dark 


RAPID DECAY OF THE HUMAN STRUCTURE. l6l 


blood from the vessels of the thorax (especially the 
superior vena cava). The great pressure of the gases 
in the abdomen and thorax prevents the liquid from 
gravitating to the regions of the heart and large 
vessels, producing the black and livid appearance of 
the face and neck by its retention in the capillary 
system of the epidermis. Man has been facetiously 
described as twelve pounds of solid matter wet up 
with six pails of water; hence, the great abundance 
of water in the human structure gives the necessary 
mobility for putrefaction. This is proven by this 
fact: that by drying the animal substances they are 
completely preserved. It is thus that the bodies of 
those perishing in the Arabian deserts are recovered 
years subsequently, dried, but otherwise fresh and 
life-like. This fact also proves that the atmosphere 
and climate in Asia is far more favorable for the 
preservation of animal substances than in this country, 
and the writer thinks it has far more to do in preserv¬ 
ing the many thousand mummies of the ancient 
Egyptians than any art or untold science. If it were 
not for want of space, I would dwell more upon this 
subject; but as the public generally have no desire to 
be wafted into untold centuries, I shall confine this 
writing to further the progress of science in this 
direction, if possible. Having no secret nostrum to 
impose upon the public, I will offer a few hints which 
I hope will prove to be of importance to the profes¬ 
sion generally. 


undertakers’ manual. 


162 


EMBALMING PROCESSES. 

For chemical embalming, it is well known to those 
having experience as undertakers and embalmers, that 
in order to successfully perform this kind of work, it 
requires knowledge as well as experience. The vari¬ 
ous circumstances encountered necessarily govern the 
work. In the writer’s experience, he finds that when 
difficult and obstinate cases are to be retained for 
some length of time (especially in warm weather), it 
will be necessary to complete the work with care. A 
very important matter in this work is to renovate the 
stomach thoroughly ; then, with simple instruments, 
similar to an aspirator needle or trocar, give vent to 
the gases and thus expel them from the cavities of 
the system. Then, with pump, draw off or force out 
the fluids and gases from the organs of circulation, 
and in this manner disinfect the body as far as possi¬ 
ble. Elevate the head and shoulders for the purpose 
of letting the inky fluid gravitate from the capillary 
system of the face to the large vessels of the thorax. 
This will renew the life’s characteristics in a remark¬ 
able and satisfactory manner, if the gases be properly 
removed. 

A simple method of disposing of the gastric juice 
of the stomach is to inject into the nose or mouth one 
or two ounces of an aqueous solution of any powerful 
antiseptic, similar to those mentioned in this article, 
and after a few moments carry the head off the bed, 
and, by gently pressing the stomach, empty its con¬ 
tents. This will prevent further difficulty from purg- 


RAPID DECAY OF THE HUMAN STRUCTURE. 163 

ing, if refilled with the solution and carefully sealed. 
Insert an instrument into the trachea, and thus give 
vent to the gases in the lungs, and inject full of the 
solution. In the same manner dispose of the gases 
from the thorax, and fill with solution. Also, the 
abdominal cavities, by completing thus, will preserve 
the viscera. The reagents or coagulants spoken of 
render the albumenoids or azotized material incapable 
of putrefaction, by the impervious nature of the com¬ 
pounds it forms of all substances that have protein 
for their base, as the tissues readily absorb the pre¬ 
serving solutions after being prepared as mentioned 
above. This unites the antiseptic and deodorizing 
agent with the very substances that it is necessary to 
render inactive in order to successfully retain the 
remains of deceased persons. 


DEODORIZING AGENTS. 

The following are very good antiseptics and deo¬ 
dorizing agents : Chloride of zinc, corrosive sublimate, 
hyposulphite, oxymuriate of mercury, carbolic acid, 
bicarbonate of potassa, aqueous solution of alumina. 
The two latter may be rendered more subservient by 
combining them with the higher oxides. The metal¬ 
lic salts are much the best for chemical embalming, if 
properly used. The remains of drowned persons 
may be prepared in the manner as above, with no 
small degree of success, as giving vent to the gases 
and freely applying antiseptics and deodorizing agents 


164 


undertakers’ manual. 


will readily correct, to a great extent, the difficulties 
thus encountered by this process. We have removed 
the most destructive fluids, or effected a combination 
with them, thus preventing the fermenting process 
and dispersing the gases, rendering the body abso¬ 
lutely free from those disagreeable and noxious odors 
which are termed phosphuretted and sulphuretted 
hydrogen gases, as well as low types or germs of 
disease, while the life’s characteristics in this state of 
preservation invariably present a most pleasant ap¬ 
pearance, allaying all natural repugnance to the dead, 
as they seem so natural and life-like, and remain in 
this state of preservation for a great length of time, 
either in transit or various changes of atmosphere, 
while this manner of operation is simple and without 
complication, affording appropriate means that under¬ 
takers may apply successfully and save themselves 
annoyance, time, labor and expense, by a little prac¬ 
tice and observing closely the directions herein given. 

The enlightenment of the public demands more 
attention to these important matters, as there is no 
necessity for the untimely and indecent burial of the 
loved but unfortunate victims of mortality, when due 
observance is given to the progress of art in modern 
science. To successfully retain the dead for such a 
period of time as will enable the bereaved friends to 
make such arrangements for burial as the occasion 
may require, without the necessity of mutilating or 
eviscerating in the horrible manner that has been 
practised in many instances, has been the design of 


RAPID DECAY OF THE HUMAN STRUCTURE. 165 

the writer, who has devoted much time in the work, 
and hopes, with the aid of others, in the no distant 
future, to make such additional suggestions and con¬ 
tributions as will practically apply to the wants of the 
profession, as well as meet the approbation of a grate¬ 
ful public. 

Scientific research has defined and established those 
fixed laws of nature with that precision whereby or¬ 
ganic matters may be traced to their simple elements. 
We will herein endeavor to very briefly trace, as far 
as possible, the chemical changes that are observed 
in dead animal matter. We assert that in the major¬ 
ity of cases (with a given temperature maintained), 
the first described subject will be the first to become 
an uncontrollable mass from the agents of putrefac¬ 
tion ; first, simply by the abundance of those fluids 
contained in subjects that immediately become active 
agents of dissolution, while such agents have been 
completely exhausted by the disease of the second. 

The apparent healthy condition of the flesh after 
death is produced by the favorable temperature that 
is maintained, dryness of the atmosphere, etc., to¬ 
gether with the general favorable conditions of the 
subject, which will render the preservation of such 
remains quite perfect, in some instances for a surpris¬ 
ingly long time. It is shown that disease of long 
standing completely exhausts the vital fluids before 
death, especially when the functions of the body have 
failed to produce the necessary nutrition. Thus it 
will be observed that the process of decomposition is 


i66 


undertakers’ manual. 


very different than when the system is full of albu- 
menoids and watery fluids, notwithstanding the tis¬ 
sues may have been seized upon by putridity before 
death. With consumptives, the disease reduces the 
flesh to dry parchment, or nearly so, leaving but a 
very small portion of water in the system. Hence, as 
putrefaction is impossible in the absence of moisture, 
and the active agent, albumen, equally reduced, de¬ 
composition of such substances that remain ensues 
only by a process of decay, slow combustion or oxid¬ 
ation, the slowly uniting of oxygen with the substance. 
In this the constituent parts of the animal tissues 
break up into simpler compounds by the chemical 
changes that nature produces, and differs from other 
forms of putrefaction only by the length of time 
employed. In cases like typhoid fever, the flesh, 
after death, assumes more of a putrid and sloughing 
condition, as the fluids are not so completely ex¬ 
hausted as in the former disease, thus leaving more 
of the active agents in the body for its immediate 
destruction. 

When death is the result of a putrid malady, putre¬ 
faction begins almost immediately when the body 
grows cold; its effects are noticeable much sooner 
when the atmosphere is warm. In general, in our 
climate, the work of decomposition becomes evident 
after from thirty-five to forty hours. Its first effects 
are noticeable on the skin of the stomach; this takes 
on a greenish discoloration, which soon spreads and 
covers the whole surface of the body; at the same 


RAPID DECAY OF THE HUMAN STRUCTURE. 167 

time everything is seized upon by what is termed 
putridity; the moist parts soften and decay; little by 
little the flesh sinks and grows watery, and is thus 
carried away or burned up by the air’s oxygen. 

And now, dear reader, we would impress your mind 
with the fact that the moment of the appearance of 
putrefaction absolutely varies with the degree of out¬ 
ward temperature, the causes of death, and the general 
condition of the remains, and just in accordance to 
the quantity of fluids remaining in the system. The 
degree of difficulty in retaining the life’s character¬ 
istics are encountered, first, because of the albu- 
menoids, the active agents of putrefaction ; second, 
the large per cent, of water they contain ; hence we 
have the necessary mobility of putrefaction, and the 
very substances that are most prone to the active 
ferments, united with the agents of disorganization, 
vibrois and bacteria, or rather the germs of those 
thread-like corpuscles which penetrate the skin and 
wind their way through the ducts into the vessels of 
circulation, which seem to conduct the rabid element 
to every structure. The living germs that collect on 
the surface of the body and in the digestive canal, 
develope, multiply, pierce into all the points of the 
organism, and produce in it a complete separation of 
all the tissues and humors. 

When persons have been killed suddenly, there 
being no disease to tamper with the functions of the 
body, the process of nutrition would be complete 
until the very moment the vitality is removed; hence 


i68 


UNDERTAKERS* MANUAL. 


the supply of fuel for this fire of dissolution. The 
corruption of these animal matters is not more possi¬ 
ble than the fermentive action of gluten in grape 
juice, and precisely the same. When these animal 
matters maintain a high temperature, the products 
formed are said to be destructive distillation. 

Many cases are recorded of similar stages of de¬ 
composition, which is an apparent spontaneous com¬ 
bustion, renewing the normal temperature of life, 
many times giving flushness to the cheeks, and thus 
appearing to have life renewed, notwithstanding the 
body had been cold for many hours previous to this 
phenomenon taking place, the result of a peculiar 
chemical action. But these instances seldom or never 
occur, while the difficulty encountered is in com¬ 
pletely reducing the heat from the bodies of those 
persons killed by accident, which fact renders the 
successful preservation of such remains for any length 
of time utterly impossible, as the fetid gases are 
evolved in such great abundance as to literally cook 
the flesh and escape into the air. Developed in the 
cadaverous odor, a pungent and ammoniacal stench, 
except there be prompt application of some powerful 
chemical reagent, with which the organized material 
may enter into combination and thus overcome the 
delivellant tendencies of the affinities of its elements. 
If ice is used and the temperature of the body re¬ 
duced below 32 0 , the water in the system is frozen, 
which acts as if the tissues had been dried, and putre¬ 
faction is thus arrested for such time as the proper 
temperature is maintained. 


PRACTICES WHICH MUST BE 


ABOLISHED. 


^OME usages which seem to be sanctioned by 
y long practice, but not by any remarkable 



amount of good judgment, ought to be dis¬ 
countenanced and done away with, simply upon the 
ground that these acts conflict directly with all san¬ 
itary laws, and to a great extent endanger the lives of 
the persons who may be present. Still, these repeated 
transgressions upon the common precautionary meas¬ 
ures against contagion are not the result of a desire 
to do wrong, neither do they always arise from sheer 
ignorance, but they are almost always caused by an 
utter disregard of even the simplest prudence. 

For instance, how often, where a child has suc¬ 
cumbed to the attack of some infectious disease, like 
scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc., how often will parents, 
regardless of the contagious character of the disease, 
insist upon kissing the pallid lips of the corpse, and, 
moreover, invite other children to follow the same 
dangerous practice. 

And again, another prolific source of disease lies in 
the fact that funeral services will be conducted in a 
close, warm, ill ventilated room, crowded with a sym- 


169 


undertakers’ manual. 


I 70 

pathizing audience, in close proximity to a corpse 
emitting foul and infectious effluvia, and inhaling 
these into the system. It is true that these same 
noxious gases may not always be detected by the 
smell, as the floral ornamentations, the crowded state 
of the room, etc., all tend to disguise any unpleasant 
odors; but the germ of contagion is still there and 
actively at work. 

It is a fact, patent and undeniable, that carelessness 
in the keeping and disposing of bodies is an act of 
guilty neglect, and the sooner the community be 
made acquainted with the danger attending such 
practices as those above spoken of, the better it will 
be for the enforcement of those sanitary measures 
which are necessary in every well regulated city or 
town. 

We have already spoken of dangers to be encount¬ 
ered in the handling of bodies, but the subject is of 
so much importance to undertakers, and concerns the 
profession so closely, that it may not be amiss here to 
renew our former cautions, also to add a few more 
suggestions, so as to modify the danger thereof, even 
if it cannot be completely eradicated. 


DANGERS ARISING FROM HANDLING 

THE DEAD. 

To those who, like physicians, students and nurses, 
are almost constantly thrown into direct contact with 
every form of epidemic, contagious and infectious 


PRACTICES WHICH MUST BE ABOLISHED. 171 

diseases, the dangers arising therefrom are consider¬ 
able. But undertakers are exposed to a still greater 
risk, namely: that of handling the remains of those 
who have died from the effects of those same diseases. 
Not only do they have to guard against the infectious 
character of the contagion, but they have also to pro¬ 
tect themselves against the malignant effluvia which 
emanates from the victims of the contagion after 
disintegration of the body has taken place, the nau¬ 
seous and sickening gases which are generated by 
decay, and the deadly virus which may be innoculated 
into the system, either through some puncture or 
abrasion of the skin; the virulent effects of the poison 
may be carried carelessly to the mouth, the nose or 
the eyes by a thoughtless action. Too much care 
cannot be exercised by undertakers in handling a 
corpse, especially if the subject is known to be 
afflicted with some infectious or malignant complaint. 

Still, the precautions generally in use among under¬ 
takers, and the different preparations that are com¬ 
monly recommended as preventives, are useless in 
most cases, as there are conditions of the system 
which will increase the danger, and in some instances 
leave it open to the insidious attacks of disease and 
contagion. Too much importance has been attached, 
so far, by undertakers, to the artificial means devised 
by some, under the names of preservatives, antidotes, 
etc., etc. The reliance placed on them, in a great 
many cases, has proved futile, and although some 
possess real and undisputed merit, they proved inef- 


172 


undertakers' manual. 


fectual when the system has been influenced by the 
following 

CONDITIONS OF THE SYSTEM, 

which will increase the danger of contagion: 

Fear .—Almost in every case, if a person is brought 
in sudden contact with the remains of one who has 
died of either cholera, small pox, yellow fever, or any 
of those terrible epidemic and contagious diseases 
which will in a few weeks decimate a populous city, 
the feeling will be one of repulsive horror; in some 
this feeling will amount to absolute fear, which will 
show itself in the dilated pupil, the bleached counte¬ 
nance, and the momentous forebodings which assail 
the mind and predispose the system to the attacks of 
the disease. In this case, the mind influences the 
body to such an extent that the disease has already 
fastened itself upon the system, before the first symp¬ 
toms are felt. 

Another and potent cause of danger is that which 
proceeds from a debilitated condition of the system, 
the causes of which are numerous : over-exertion of 
either the body or the mind; labor carried on inces¬ 
santly without due regard to relaxation; imperfect 
nutrition, or long fast, are all causes which will tend 
to render the system more vulnerable to the aggres¬ 
sions of sickness. 

But the most pernicious and fatal of all mistakes, is 
that of using stimulants to ward off the effects of 
contagion. How many of our professionals and their 


PRACTICES WHICH MUST BE ABOLISHED. 173 

assistants have given way to the use of ardent spirits, 
under the delusion that it was absolutely necessary, to 
avoid the noxious effects of infectious diseases. It is 
a well authenticated fact, and one worthy of notice, 
that persons who generally indulge in the use of 
spirituous liquors, even in a moderate quantity, are 
those who are first attacked by epidemic or con¬ 
tagious diseases, and who almost always fall victims 
to it. Take, for instance, the case of a surgeon about 
to perform a dangerous operation. His first inquiry 
will be about the habits of the patient; he knows 
well enough that a man addicted to drink will not 
bear up under the trial. 

The only means we have to protect ourselves from 
the dangers of infection from dead bodies are, first, a 
perfect ventilation of the room where the remains lie, 
so as to obviate the bad tendency which the air of the 
death-chamber might have upon the system. Atten¬ 
tion must also be paid to the diet; the food eaten 
should be generous and nutritious, and it is proper to 
take a small quantity of wine at a time when the body 
and mind are debilitated by long and exhaustive 
manipulation of the dead, but avoid all excess of 
fluids or solids. Tempera?ice is strictly necessary. 

Wounds received while handling a corpse should 
not be neglected; if a simple abrasion, it should be 
covered; if pricked, the liquid muriate of ammonia 
or caustic potass are recommended to be applied as 
cauteries. These are the early measures to be pur¬ 
sued; but after absorption has taken place, a different 


*74 


UNDERTAKERS* manual. 


course must be practised, and a good physician con¬ 
sulted without delay. The garments ordinarily worn 
should never be brought into direct contact with the 
remains of a person tainted with some infectious 
disease. 

But it is to the hands we must pay particular atten¬ 
tion. Gangrenous or syphilitic sores may be found 
on a subject, in which case extreme caution must be 
exerted; the hands should be first well rubbed with 
lard or sweet oil mixed with carbolate of camphor, 
and thoroughly washed after the handling of the body 
is over; then the hands should be well soaked in 
chlorinated soda (Labarraque solution), as the disin¬ 
fecting properties of chlorine will be found here par¬ 
ticularly useful. 

If the above suggestions are faithfully followed, 
they will be found to greatly diminish the dangers 
attending the handling of the dead—dangers which 
can never be entirely avoided. 


MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE 


OF AN UNDERTAKING ESTABLISHMENT. 


( Ht UCH *he success °f an undertaking estab- 
lishment will be dependent, not only upon the 

I v head of the firm himself, but also upon the 
discipline maintained among those to whom the de¬ 
tails of the business are entrusted; and the difficulties 
surrounding proper management will increase as it 
extends and involves the employment of more numer¬ 
ous operatives, unless the general duties of all are 
specifically laid down, and the particular duties of 
each well defined and insisted upon. 

The rules which follow were prepared by a gentle¬ 
man of considerable experience and unusual success 
in business; they were designed for a store employing 
three assistants. 

Although, of -course, they require modifications to 
suit the circumstances of different establishments, 
their general tenor is adapted to all, and the high 
tone of orofessional and moral aptitude they require 
renders them worthy the acceptance of every assistant 
who would deserve the approval of his employer, and 
of every employer who desires the best interests of his 
assistants. 


i75 


176 


undertakers’ manual. 


SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE FIRST AS¬ 
SISTANT. 

1st.—To see that the specific duties of the other 
assistants are promptly and well performed. 

2d.—To attend to mail orders from dealers in the 
country ; select the goods to be packed up and sent 
out; to wait on customers, etc., that the two other 
assistants may not be hindered in the performance of 
their duties. 

3d.—He is to attend to the laying out of bodies; 
and in the absence of the proprietor, or if the pressure 
of business should require it, he is to take charge of 
the funerals, with the assistance of the second as¬ 
sistant. 

4th.—In case of the absence of either of his juniors, 
to take the place of the second assistant. 

5th.—He is to take charge of the books, collections, 
etc., should the proprietor wish him to do so. 

6th.—He is to take knowledge of and properly 
note any articles that may be needed for the store, 
including goods to be purchased and work to be 
attended to. 

7th.—To see that the stock of goods is well sup¬ 
plied with those items which are generally kept by 
the quantity. Should the place of business be remote 
from any manufacturing firm of undertakers’ goods, 
such as coffins, hardware, caskets, etc., he is to keep 
a faithful and strict account of the sizes, styles and 
grades of caskets and coffins on hand, as also of the 


MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE. 


1 77 


needful requirements in that line; he should also call 
the attention of the proprietor to the quality, style, 
etc., of the goods needed, and place in the hands of 
his employer a list of the goods to be ordered, or 
likely to be called for. 

8th.—To keep a note book of what is necessary to 
be done in the ordinary business of the store, and to 
designate employment for the other assistants. 

9th.—He is to superintend, and if need be to help, 
in the lining and trimming of coffins, and, in the 
absence of the proprietor, to attend to the embalming 
and preserving of bodies. 

10th.—In short, he must, during the absence of the 
proprietor, take entire charge of the store, and be 
alone responsible for its business. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE SECOND 

ASSISTANT. 

1st.—It will be his duty to dust the cases, desks, 
etc., thoroughly every morning. This service must 
be performed before breakfast, and as often repeated 
through the day as necessary. 

2d.—In the absence of the third assistant, he is to 
perform his duties. 

3d.—He shall assist the proprietor, or the first 
assistant, in the laying out, washing and dressing of 
bodies; and also at funerals, in the management of 
the hearse and carriages. 

4th.—He is to trim caskets according to the direc¬ 
tions of the first assistant, and follow the instructions 


i7» 


undertakers’ manual. 


given him as to the choice of materials used in their 
ornamentation. 

5th.—He shall see that a sample of each size, style 
and grade of coffin and casket be always on hand in 
the show room, and ready to be turned out in the 
shortest space of time possible. 

6th.—He is to keep an exact record, in the book 
devoted to that purpose, of the name, residence, cause 
of death, age and place of burial, of all parties which 
may have been interred by the firm. This register 
must always be posted up to date. 

7th.—It will be his duty to clean the show cases, 
work room, and the stock in general, once a week, 
and oftener if necessary. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES OF THE THIRD AS¬ 
SISTANT. 

1st.—He is to open the store in the morning; make 
the fire, and attend to it through the day ; sweep out 
the store; wash the windows; and see that all tools 
and implements are in their proper place and ready 
for instant use. 

2d.—It shall be his duty to keep cooling boards 
clean and tidy; to have palls, stools and pedestals 
dusted and in shape. 

3d.—It shall be his duty to pack goods and make 
boxes when required. 

4th.—It will be required of him to do such errands 
as the business of the store may demand, and also to 
close the store at night. * 


MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE. 


1 79 


GENERAL REGULATIONS OF THE STORE. 

ist.—Business hours will include the time between 
breakfast and six o’clock, p. m., except when special 
duty may require it otherwise. 

2d.—During business hours, all hands must be em¬ 
ployed at some regular store duty. 

3d.—As waiting on customers is a duty which re¬ 
quires most knowledge and experience, the first as¬ 
sistant must always serve when there is one customer; 
the other assistants may help if need be. 

4th.—The first assistant must always take that part 
of the duty which requires most knowledge and skill. 
This order of duty must never be deviated from, if 
circumstances will admit of it. 

5th.—All other duty must give way to that of 
waiting on customers. 

6th.—Every person entering the store, whether pau¬ 
per or president, infant or adult, white or colored, 
must be treated with courtesy and kindness. 

yth.—Boisterous mirth and a sullen temper are to 
be equally avoided, as productive of neither business 
nor business character. The acquisition of a uni¬ 
formly cheerful temperament is an attainment worth 
far beyond the price it usually costs. 

8th.—There are to be no masters and no servants. 
Each one is to feel conscious of the fact that the 
performance of the duties assigned to him is just as 
necessary and as important as what pertains to any 
other hand in the store. All useful employment is 
honorable ; indolence is a disgrace. 


undertakers’ manual. 


i So 

9th.—An afternoon of every week will be devoted 
to the cleaning of the store, in which all must share 
as occasion offers. 

10th.—As neatness, order and cleanliness are nec¬ 
essary, and not mere accomplishments, in an under¬ 
taking establishment, all are required to practice them 
constantly. 

nth.—Assistants should be rather select in the 
choice of their acquaintances; while the occasional 
visit of a well behaved friend will be countenanced, 
lounging in the store will not be tolerated. 

12th.—Each assistant shall have, if business per¬ 
mits, one afternoon and evening every week, and 
every other Sunday; the afternoon will comprise the 
time between twelve o’clock at noon and six o’clock 
p. m. ; the evening, between six o’clock p. m. and the 
closing of the store. These privileges must not be 
interfered with unnecessarily. 

13th.—No assistant residing in the house will be 
allowed to be absent at night after the closing of the 
store, without special permission. 

14th.—A vacation of two weeks every year will be 
allowed each assistant. 

15th.—It is not the wish of the proprietor that any 
of his employes should extol the goods beyond their 
merits to advance his pecuniary interests, or to say or 
do aught in.the performance of his duties that he 
would not be willing that others should say or do to 
him under the same circumstances. 

A cheerful compliance with the foregoing rules is 


MANAGEMENT AND- DISCIPLINE. l8l 

confidently expected, and the repeated infraction of a 
regulation of the store will be cause for dismissal. 

In certain establishments, where a driver is kept 
for the purpose of taking care of horses and driving 
the hearse or other vehicles, this employe shall be 
under the immediate supervision of the proprietor. 


MODIFICATIONS IN THE MODE 

OF EMBALMING BODIES. 

_ t 

HERE are modifications in the processes used 
Ihfj/ for the preservation of bodies, which are gov- 
1 erned by circumstances affecting the different 
conditions of the body at the time of death. Although 
we may lay general rules for the quantity and variety 
of antiseptics used in embalming, there are certain 
cases where the quantity of the chemicals which enter 
into the composition of the injecting fluid must be 
either increased or curtailed, as well as the amount of 
the injection. 

It would require the scope of a cyclopedia to give 
in detail the proportions of each constituent in the 
number of different cases which may come under the 
notice of the embalmer. 

The mode of operation in all cases may be the 
same, but the nature and quantity of the injection 
will vary, first, with the climatic circumstances of the 
atmosphere; second, with the cause of death; third, 
with the age of the deceased; fourth, with the state 
of the body after death; fifth, with the length of time 
which has elapsed since death took place. 

It has been demonstrated in a previous chapter 
that a high temperature is conducive to rapid, decom- 

182 


MODIFICATIONS OF EMBALMING BODIES. 183 

position of organic matter, also that a warm, moist 
atmosphere will operate in the same manner; it is 
therefore incumbent upon the operator to guard 
against these two agents of putrefaction by keeping 
the body in a moderately cool and well ventilated 
place until the work of preserving is accomplished; 
also to give the antiseptics employed time to suc¬ 
cessfully destroy and render harmless the dangerous 
effects of the heat. 

It must not be understood by the preceding cau¬ 
tion that a body cannot be embalmed in an ordinary 
room during the heat of the summer, but the sug¬ 
gestion herein given is solely for the purpose of 
facilitating the operation and rendering the success 
certain; besides, as it has been illustrated in some of 
the processes precedingly given, the strength as well 
as the quantity of the injection have been increased 
when used during the warm season. 

As to the modifications to be observed in the treat¬ 
ment of bodies, when the cause of death is taken 
into consideration. It has formed the subject of 
some chapters to show that, in cases where death is 
the result of a certain class of diseases, the body is 
more prone to putrefy than in others; whilst in other 
cases, again, the body is to a certain extent preserved 
from corruption by the agents which have proved 
fatal to the organism; as, for instance, when death 
has been the result of poisoning, either by alcohol or 
arsenic. 

The age of the person deceased, and the condition 


184 


undertakers’ manual. 


of the body after death, as also the length of time 
elapsed since death took place, as affecting the mode 
of treatment, have all been discussed in a former part 
of this work, and it would hardly be necessary to 
have a new elucidation upon the same subject. 

The important point we wish to impress now upon 
the minds of our professionals is, that circumstances 
in this case are to be strictly investigated; also, that 
a uniform treatment of all cases, however different 
the circumstances and conditions, will not prove suc¬ 
cessful ; and that a thorough knowledge and experi¬ 
ence are necessary to achieve satisfactory results. 

Discrimination and judgment are to be used in 
every case. Some are too ready to condemn a cer¬ 
tain process, or to question the properties of some an¬ 
tiseptics, because their first trial of either has proved 
an ignominious failure; whereas the real cause of all 
the trouble lies in their ignorance of the laws which 
govern the mode of proceeding, and the use of the 
chemicals placed at their disposition. 

Others, again, are prone to extol the merits of some 
preparation, the component parts of which they do 
not know, but it may have done them good service 
in several instances; and when, contrary to their ex¬ 
pectations, it fails to answer the purpose, they lose 
faith in it, discard it altogether as worthless, and 
never entertain the idea that an alteration in the 
quantity used, or in the combination and strength of 
the constituents, is the real source of mischief. 

Hence, it is a fact not to be denied that a diagnosis 


MODIFICATIONS OF EMBALMING BODIES. 185 

(if it may be called so) is necessary before the work 
of embalming be entered into. And he who would 
endeavor to preserve the body of a stout, fleshy per¬ 
son by the same means employed in the preserving of 
a body emaciated by long sufferings, and under differ¬ 
ent conditions of temperature, might not meet with a 
success equal to his expectations. 


CHLORINE: 


ITS PROPERTIES AND USES. 


HLORINATED LIME.—In consequence of its 
% powers as a disinfectant, chlorinated lime is a 
very important compound in its application to 
medical police; it possesses the property of arresting 
or preventing animal or vegetable putrefaction, and 
perhaps of destroying pestilential and infectious mi¬ 
asma. It is used with advantage in preventing bodies 
from exhaling an unpleasant odor before interment in 
the summer season. In juridical exhumations its use 
is indispensable, as it effectually removes the disgust¬ 
ing and insupportable fetor of the corpse. 

The mode in which it is applied in these cases is, 
to envelope the body in a sheet completely wet with 
a solution made by adding about one pound of the 
chloride to a bucketful of water. It is employed also 
for disinfecting dissecting rooms, vaults, cemeteries 
and other places, which exhale offensive effluvia. 

In destroying contagion and infection it appears to 
be highly useful. In short, all places deemed infec¬ 
tious from having been the receptacle of virulent dis¬ 
ease may be more or less disinfected by its use, after 
having undergone the ordinary process of cleansing. 

186 



CHLORINE. 


187 


Chlorinated lime acts exclusively by its chlorine, 
which, being loosely combined, is disengaged by the 
slightest affinities. All acids, even the carbonic, dis¬ 
engage it; and as this acid is a product of animal 
and vegetable decomposition, noxious effluvia furnish 
the means, to a certain extent, of their own disinfec¬ 
tion. But the stronger acids disengage it more freely, 
and amongst these sulphuric acid is the most con¬ 
venient. Accordingly, the powder may be dissolved 
in a very dilute solution of this acid ; or a small 
quantity of the acid may be added to an aqueous 
solution already formed, if a more copious evolution 
of chlorine be desired than that which takes place 
from the mere action of the carbonic acid of the 
atmosphere. 

The great and only objection, so far, against the 
use of chlorinated lime by the profession, has been 
the strong smell of the chlorine evolved; but taking 
into consideration the great antiseptic properties, and 
also the strong bleaching and disinfecting qualities of 
the chlorine, we find that it cannot be overlooked as 
an agent of major importance in the preservation of 
bodies. 

There are certain modes of using the chlorinated 
lime whereby the offensive odor can be to a great 
extent diminished, if not altogether done away with. 
When used in its crude state, it will be found diffi¬ 
cult to handle; besides, it could not be used for 
the purpose of an injection ; it needs, then, a certain 
amount of preparation before it be used in a liquid 


i8S 


UNDERTAKERS* MANUAL. 


form. The following has been given as the simplest 
manner of preparing it for injecting: 

Take, of chlorinated lime, one pound, carbonate of 
soda, two pounds, water, one gallon; dissolve the 
carbonate of soda in three pints of water by the aid 
of heat; to the remainder of the water add, by small 
portions at a time, the chlorinated lime, previously 
well triturated, stirring the mixture after each addi¬ 
tion. Set the mixture by for several hours, that the 
dregs may subside; then decant the clear liquor, and 
mix it with the solution of carbonate of soda. Lastly, 
decant the clear liquor from the precipitated carbon¬ 
ate of lime, pass it through a linen cloth, and keep it 
in bottles secluded from the light. 

The London Pharmacopoeia gives a still better pro¬ 
cess for preparing it, for reasons which will be given 
hereafter: 

Take, of carbonate of soda, one pound, water, forty- 
eight fluid ounces, chloride of sodium (common salt), 
four ounces, black oxide of manganese, three ounces, 
sulphuric acid, two fluid ounces and a half; dissolve 
the carbonate of soda in two pints of water; then put 
the chloride of sodium and the binoxide or black 
oxide of manganese, rubbed to powder, in a retort, 
and add to them the acid, previously mixed with 
three fluid ounces of water, and cooled. Heat the 
mixture, and pass the chlorine first through five fluid 
ounces of water, and afterwards into the solution of 
the carbonate above directed. Upon the addition of 
muriatic acid, both these solutions emit carbonic acid 
and chlorine together. 


CHLORINE. 


189 


The foregoing given preparation will be found to 
answer the purpose for disinfecting, injecting and 
preserving corpses. For injecting purposes, the solu¬ 
tion should be used fresh, and the muriatic acid only 
added to it, for a more copious liberation of both 
carbonic acid and chlorine, when ready to inject the 
liquid, as the antiseptic properties of the solution 
depend altogether on its gaseous evolutions. 

To inject the solution, it will be found that the 
axillary artery on the left side is a good point; also, 
the right jugular vein should be punctured, so as to 
facilitate the flow of blood from the head. But to 
make the operation complete, and to be sure of a 
perfect and thorough injection, the ascending aorta 
should be injected, and the inferior vena cava severed 
at a corresponding point. This mode of injecting has 
been described in a former chapter. 

It is not possible to specify here the amount of 
liquid to be injected ; but as a general rule there 
should be enough of the solution injected to fill the 
circulatory system, and the injection be continued 
until after the blood has ceased to flow from the 
wound in the vena cava and the injecting fluid ap¬ 
pears in its place. 

When injected with this solution, a corpse may 
present for a few hours afterwards a bloated and 
swollen appearance, and the face and body may be 
marbled over with white spots; but these symptoms 
will soon disappear, the body will collapse again to 
its normal size, and the color become of a uniform 
shade. 


undertakers’ manual. 


190 

To preserve bodies during the summer season for a 
few days and without ice; also to prevent the swelling 
up of the abdomen and the purging at the mouth and 
nostrils, open the stomach, as explained in a previous 
chapter, empty out the contents, and inject into it 
some of the above solution; the bowels must be 
treated in the same manner, and also inject the lungs 
through the nostrils, by producing artificial respira¬ 
tion. If the liquid cannot be injected in this manner, 
cut into the trachea an incision large enough to admit 
of the nozzle of the injector being inserted, and pour 
in the necessary quantity. 

If any fetor is exhaled from the corpse after being 
placed in the coffin, a sponge well saturated with the 
solution and being placed at the feet of the corpse 
will remove all foul effluvia; or better still, a china or 
porcelain bowl filled with the solution may be placed 
inside the case until a few minutes before the funeral 
and the screwing down of the lid. 

The air of the room may also be purified by satu¬ 
rating some cloths with the solution and hanging 
them in different parts of the apartment. The ves¬ 
sels containing excretions should not be neglected, 
and some of the solution poured into them. 

In fact, undertakers will find the above solution to 
be adapted to all purposes of disinfecting, deodoriz¬ 
ing and preserving corpses. 


INSTRUMENTS. 


t 

O&ff NDERTAKERS will find it to their advantage 
yjj to possess instruments of the best materials 
and make; they are always cheaper in the end, 
as they will resist the wear and tear to a greater 
extent, and will not be liable to get out of order 
when most needed. 

Especially in injecting apparatus should a great 
amount of care be exercised about the selection. 
The greatest danger to be guarded against is corro¬ 
sion, as all injecting fluids which are now in use 
contain more or less of either acids or metallic salts, 
all of which will attack and corrode, to a lesser or 
greater extent, the metals and other substances with 
which they come in direct contact. 

Any injector, therefore, so constructed as to be free 
from danger to its mechanism from the corroding 
effects of the liquids above mentioned, will be the 
one to be chosen. According to the statements 
above given, any part of an apparatus which is re¬ 
quired to operate with a certain degree of nicety 
must be kept from the corrosive effects of the fluids, 
and this result is to be gained only by the peculiar 
construction of the apparatus. 

In the greater part of the injecting pumps now 

191 


192 


undertakers’ manual. 


manufactured and in use in this country, the body of 
the pump, which contains the working part of the 
apparatus, is also filled with the liquid while in use; 
and, therefore, this part, which ought to be protected 
from injury, is constantly immersed in the strong 
corrosive solution during all the time that the in¬ 
jector is being worked. 

The result of this constant corroding action upon 
the apparatus will soon show itself in the working 
of it, and constant repairs will be found necessary 
to keep it in order or in a state of comparative 
effectiveness. 

It must be well remembered, that upon the working 
of the apparatus depends, to a great extent, the good 
or poor success of embalming; also, that upon the 
manner of using an apparatus, of whatever descrip¬ 
tion it may be, the length of its duration and its 
effectiveness will be in the same ratio. 

The automatic apparatus of Girard, for injecting 
purposes, is a marvel of simplicity and durability; 
there is no piston or force pump, which is liable at 
any moment to get out of order; no valves, which will 
wear out by friction, or leak from the effects of the 
liquid used. 

The force used in ejecting the fluid is that of a gas, 
highly antiseptic in its nature, and which, being gen¬ 
erated insdie of a cylinder, saturates the injecting 
fluid (itself an antiseptic solution), and by its expan¬ 
sive force propels it into the arteries of the body. 

All the appliances necessary to the perfect working 


INSTRUMENTS. 


J 9 3 


of the apparatus are condensed into a small compass. 
The amount of gas generated can be increased or 
diminished at will. A pressure gage indicates the 
force of expansion acquired by the gas. A glass 
tube, similar to the water tube in use on some boilers, 
and with a graduated scale attached, shows both the 
amount of liquid used and also the quantity remain¬ 
ing in the apparatus; while a relief-cock insures 
safety to the operator against too rapid an accumula¬ 
tion of gas. 

This last danger need scarcely be apprehended, as, 
after the pressure gage indicates the force of expan¬ 
sion required, the further generation of the gas can 
be entirely stopped, until the vacuum created by the 
outflow of liquid needs to be replaced by a new 
supply of gas. For it is a fact well understood, that 
the force of expansion of the generating power de¬ 
creases in the same proportion as the volume of 
the liquid is diminished, thereby causing a greater 
vacuum in the apparatus. 

The inside of the apparatus is thickly coated with 
lead, as that metal is not sensibly acted on by either 
muriatic or sulphuric acid, except at very high tem¬ 
peratures. 

The jet or stream of liquid can be regulated by a 
screw cock, attached to the neck of a metallic tube 
reaching to the bottom of the apparatus, inside, and 
provided at its inner extremity with a perforated 
bulb, which, acting as a filter, prevents any impurity 
or sediment from finding its way into and stopping 


i 9 4 


undertakers' manual. 


the circulation of the fluid through the arterial sys¬ 
tem; at the same time it prevents any excessive 
amount of pressure upon the rubber tube five or six 
feet in length, which is connected with the delivery 
tube outside, and at the end of which the nozzle is 
attached. 

The nozzle or cannula itself is a very important 
part of the apparatus, and is of a peculiar shape; it 
consists of a thin copper tube about eight inches in 
length and a little over an eighth of an inch in 
diameter; it is to be inserted at full length, or nearly 
so, into the artery to be injected, as by doing so it 
meets a point where the walls of the artery are 
strengthened by the surrounding tissues. 

The shape of the apparatus is that of an elongated 
cylinder, rounded off at both ends, resembling some¬ 
what a soda fountain; it stands upright, upon four 
curved legs about four inches in height, and possesses 
a symmetrical and substantial appearance. 

The other apparatus—Ronsard’s—is about similar 
in construction, but the power exerted in forcing out 
the liquid is not gas, as in the former apparatus, but 
compressed air, forced into the body of the reservoir 
by means of a pump. 

The body of the apparatus consists of a cylinder 
holding about five gallons; this constitutes the reser¬ 
voir containing the liquid to be injected. Outside of 
this cylinder and running alongside of it is the body 
of the pump. The pipe communicating the air forced * 
inside the cylinder above the liquid enters the bottom 


instruments. 


r 95 


of the reservoir, and, passing through the liquid, runs 
along the inner side of the vessel until it has reached 
a point almost to the top of the cylinder. In the 
center of the apex at the top of the cylinder is a 
small funnel connected to a pipe running inside of 
the apparatus; this pipe, which is furnished with a 
cock, is intended to conduct inside the apparatus the 
liquid poured in at the funnel; it will act also as a 
relief cock, should it be found necessary to relieve 
the pressure on the liquid. 

This apparatus is not provided, like the other, with 
a pressure gage, from the fact that the pressure being 
the result of a mechanical cause, the operator will 
soon be able to judge the amount of pressure by the 
number of strokes of the piston. 

The delivery pipe is similar in every respect to the 
one in the apparatus described formerly ; the gradu¬ 
ated tube outside showing the quantity of liquid 
inside the apparatus is also the same; in fact, the 
similarity between the two is striking. But the prin¬ 
cipal feature of the apparatus, and that which recom¬ 
mends it to the profession, is the perfect isolation of 
all the working parts of the apparatus from direct 
contact with the liquid injected. The greatest objec¬ 
tion in this case, as in the other, is removed, as the 
most important part of the work, namely: that of 
compressing the air, is performed without any danger 
to the generator. 

Another apparatus —that of Waldon—combines the 
two systems in one, and can be operated with equal 


196 


UNDERTAKERS MANUAL. 


facility either by means of compressed air or by 
means of gaseous expansion. 

Still, these instruments require a certain amount of 
familiarity in the handling before they can be operated 
with efficiency, as, to a person not fully conversant 
with their mechanism, they may prove awkward. 

The instruments of Messrs. G. Tiemann & Co., of 
New York, which I have employed so far very suc¬ 
cessfully, could be rendered perfect by adopting some 
modifications in their make. 


GASEOUS COMPOUNDS. 


little attention has been paid heretofore to 
\tj the antiseptic powers of certain gases. It is a 
well known fact, that some of the gases which 
are the result of animal and vegetable decomposition 
are, to a certain extent, the means of their own dis¬ 
infection ; hence, some of these are endowed with 
deodorizing as well as antiseptic properties. 

We have already given at length the properties of 
chlorine. Carbonic acid gas is another of those anti¬ 
septic agents which will occupy our attention. 

It exists in the atmosphere as a product of combus¬ 
tion and of the respiration of animals; it is a result, 
also, of the slow decomposition of most vegetable 
substances, and is evolved in great quantities from 
the ground in volcanic countries. In the formation 
of sugar it is produced in abundance, along with 
alcohol. 

For the purposes of the chemist, it is generally 
prepared by decomposing marble by means of some 
stronger acid. From its cheapness and the solubility 
of the residual salt, muriatic acid is generally em¬ 
ployed. 

The properties of carbonic acid are very remark¬ 
able; it is perfectly colorless and invisible; it is 

i97 



198 


undertakers’ manual. 


irrespirable, producing, when an attempt is made to 
breathe it, violent spasms of the glottis. If it be 
respired mixed with air, even in the proportion of 
one to ten, it gradually produces stupor and death, 
acting as a narcotic poison. Hence, when disengaged 
in large quantities, whether by natural operations or in 
process of manufacture, it accumulates in all cavities 
within its reach, and may cause fatal accidents to 
animals who enter unadvisedly. 

Carbonic acid does not support combustion; a 
taper plunged into a jar* full of the gas is instantly 
extinguished. Carbonic acid is also a check on pu¬ 
trefaction, and arrests decay. 


SULPHUROUS ACID. 

Sulphurous acid exists at ordinary temperature and 
pressure in the gaseous form; it is one, however, of 
the most easily liquified gases. It is produced always 
when sulphur burns, either in air or in pure oxygen; 
sulphur not being capable of passing directly to a 
higher degree of oxydation. In the burning of sul¬ 
phur, the volume of sulphurous acid gas formed is 
exactly equal to the amount of oxygen consumed. 

Sulphurous acid gas may also be simply prepared 
by heating three parts of flowers of sulphur with four 
of peroxide of manganese. The reaction is very 
simple: one part of the sulphur uniting with the 
metal, and another with the oxygen, form sulphuret of 
manganese and sulphurous acid. 


GASEOUS COMPOUNDS. 


1 99 


Another and quicker way to obtain this gas in 
small quantities is, to decompose a solution of hypo- 
sulphate of soda, by adding muriatic acid to it, so as 
to liberate the hyposulphurous acid, which immedi¬ 
ately decomposes into sulphur and sulphurous acid. 

Sulphurous acid is absorbed by water. It is color¬ 
less and transparent, possessing an odor peculiarly 
irritating (the smell of burning sulphur), and cannot 
be breathed. It is not combustible, nor does it 
support combustion. Water dissolves about thirty- 
seven times its volume of sulphurous acid ; the solu¬ 
tion possesses the properties of the gas in a very 
high degree, and bleaches vegetable colors with great 
power; when kept for some time it gradually absorbs 
oxygen, and the sulphurous becomes changed into 
sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid is one of the 
feeblest acids, and is expelled from its combinations 
by almost all but the carbonic acid. 

As has been demonstrated, all these gases are ab¬ 
sorbed by water, and a saturated solution possesses 
the properties of the gases themselves. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

GENERAL VIEW OF THE CIRCULATING 
APPARATUS OF MAN. 

The course and relative positions of the principal 
arteries and veins of the Systemic circulation are 
shown in this plate. The arteries commence from 
the great arterial trunk, called the aorta, and their 
branches are distributed to all parts of the system. 
The venous branches, which accompany the arteries, 
unite into two great veins, the superior and inferior 
vena cava, which convey the blood back to the heart. 

a , The left ventricle of the heart, b , The right 
auricle, c, The superior vena cava, d, The root of 
the pulmonary artery. <?, e, The aorta, which is seen 
arching backward over the heart, and passing down¬ 
ward into the abdomen, where it divides into its two 
great branches, the iliac arteries, through which the 
blood passes to the lower extremities. f y The inferior 
vena cava, which accompanies the descending aorta 
and its branches, and returns the blood from the 
lower extremities. The dotted lines represent the 
outlines of the kidneys. 


200 


PHYSIOLOGY 


201 












202 


UNDERTAKERS* MANUAL. 


PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE AORTA 
AND VENA CAVA. 

It should be remembered that most of the branches 
which spring from the great artery and vein are dou¬ 
ble—that is, each right branch has a corresponding 
one at the left side—so that there are, for instance, 
the right and the left carotid arteries, the right and 
the left jugular veins, etc. 

From the arch of the aorta are sent off those 
arteries which are distributed to the head and arms. 
The principal ones among these are named as fol¬ 
lows : 

g, The carotid artery, which ascends in the side of 
the neck, and divides into the temporal artery, //, 
which is distributed in the temple, and the facial 
artery, i, which supplies the face; and also sends a 
branch, called the internal carotid, to the parts with¬ 
in the skull. 

/, The sub-clavian artery, lying beneath the clavicle 
or collar-bone. That part of the continuation of this 
artery which passes through the axilla or arm-pit is 
called the axillary artery, k; that which lies in the 
upper arm, the brachial artery, l; and in the fore-arm 
it divides into the radial and ulnar arteries, ///, «, 
which are distributed to the hand and fingers in the 
manner indicated in the plate. 

The principal branches of the descending aorta are 
named as follows : 

The iliac artery, o , on passing into the thigh be¬ 
comes the femoral artery, /, and in the leg divides 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


203 


into the tibial and peroneal arteries, q , r, which form 
numerous branches for the supply of the leg and foot. 

Before dividing into the iliac arteries, the descend¬ 
ing aorta gives off several important branches, as the 
coeliac artery, from which the stomach and liver are 
supplied; the renal artery, which goes to the kid¬ 
neys, and the mesenteric artery, to the intestines; 
besides many other sub-divisions in various parts of 
its course. 

The branches of the vena cava generally accom¬ 
pany those of the aorta in their distribution, as shown 
in the figure, and are often called by the same names. 
The principal divisions of the superior vena cava 
are : The jugular vein, s, which accompanies the 
carotid artery * the sub-clavian vein, t , which accom¬ 
panies the artery of the same name, and receives the 
blood from the arm and hand. 

The inferior vena cava, like the aorta, divides into 
two great branches, the iliac veins, u , the sub-divi¬ 
sions of which accompany those of the arteries, and 
are called by the same names. The manner in which 
the superficial veins ramify and anastomose with each 
other is shown on the upper and lower extremity of 
the left side. 


ORGANS OF DIGESTION. 

‘ Figure i. —General View of the Digestive Organs 
of Man .—This figure is intended to give a general 
idea of the forms and relative positions of the organs 


204 


undertakers’ manual. 



of digestion.— a, The oesophagus. The stomach. 
c , The duodenum, d, d, d , Convolutions of the small 
intestine, e, The ccecum. f, Appendix of the coecum. 
g, Opening of the small into the large intestine, h, 
The ascending colon, i, i, Transverse arch of the 


colon, j, The descending colon, k, The liver. /, The 
gall-bladder. The pancreas, mostly covered by the 
stomach, o , The spleen.—In this figure, the liver is 
raised up and the transverse arch of the colon drawn 
down, in order to show parts which they cover when 
in their natural situation. 



PHYSIOLOGY 


205 


Figure 2. —General Aspect cf the Abdominal Vis¬ 
cera .—In this figure, the anterior walls of the abdo¬ 
men are removed, so as to show the organs in their 
natural positions. The small intestine is removed.— 


Fig. 2 



a , The liver, situated beneath the right arch of the 
diaphragm. b } The stomach. c } Epiploa, or floating 
folds of the peritoneum. d, Summit of the gall¬ 
bladder. e } e } Large intestine, showing all its courses. 








20 6 


undertakers’ manual. 

ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.—HEART AND 

LUNGS. 

Figure i. —Front View of Heart and Lungs .—Both 
organs are stripped of their envelopes, the pleura and 
pericardium. The right lung is drawn aside, so as to 
uncover the heart and large vessels. The left lung is 



deeply dissected, to show the distribution and mode 
of ramification of the air-tubes and blood-vessels. 

a , The larynx, b , The trachea.—The right lung is 
somewhat shorter than the left, and is divided into 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


207 


three lobes, c , d, e; while the left lung has but two 
lobes, fyg. The surface of the lobes is sub-divided 
into lobules, by the intersection of great numbers of 
depressed lines. /\, Right auricle of the heart. /, 
Right ventricle. /, Left auricle. £, Left ventricle. 
/, The aorta. ///, The pulmonary artery. Left 
pulmonary veins.—These veins are four in number, 
two for each lung; and they return to the heart the 
blood which has been conveyed into the lungs by the 
pulmonary artery. The division of the pulmonary 
artery into right and left branches cannot be seen in 
this figure, being hidden by the aorta. 0, The supe¬ 
rior vena cava. /, Root of the right innominate 
artery, springing from the arch of the aorta, y, Root 
of the left sub-clavian artery, r, Root of the left 
carotid artery. 


2o8 


undertakers’ manual. 


Fig. 2. 



Figure 2. —Back View of the Heart and Lungs .— 
a , Larynx, b, Trachea, c, Right bronchus, d, Left 
bronchus, e, Left auricle of the heart, f, Left ven¬ 
tricle. g, Right pulmonary veins. //, Left pulmonary 
veins, i, Left pulmonary artery, f Section of the 
aorta, k. Trunks of the brachio-cephalic veins (those 
which belong to the arms and head). /, The opening 
of the inferior vena cava.—The sub-divisions of the 
pulmonary arteries and veins, and of the air-tubes or 
bronchi, are seen accompanying each other in the left 
lung in both figures. 


GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 


A 

Abdomen (L. abdo , to hide). So called from its containing the 
intestines, &c. 

Abductor (L. abduco , to draw from). Abducent. A muscle, 
whose office is to draw one part of the body away from another. 

Absorption. The act or process of imbibing or swallowing. 

Absorbents. Vessels which imbibe, as lymphatics and lacteals. 

Albumen (L. a/btis , white). Albumen is of two kinds, animal 
and vegetable: i. Animal albumen exists in two forms/the 
liquid and the solid. In the liquid state, it is a thick, glairy 
fluid, constituting the principal, part of the white of egg. In 
the solid state, it is contained in several of the textures of the 
body, as the cellular membrane, the skin, glands and vessels.— 
2. Vegetable albumen closely resembles animal albumen, and has 
been found in wheat, rye, barley, peas and beans. 

Anastomosis (Gr. and , through, and stoma , a mouth). The com¬ 
munication of vessels with each other, as of the arteries with the 
veins, which, by touching at numerous points, form a net-work 
or reticulation. See Inosculation. 

Anatomy (Gr. anate'mno, to cut up). The science of organiza¬ 
tion ; the science whose object is the examination of the organs 
or instruments of life. Animal anatomy is divided into human 
anatomy and comparative anatomy , according as it treats of the 
organization of the human body, or of that of other animals. 

Aorta (Gr. aer, air, ter/d, to keep ; as having been formerly sup¬ 
posed to contain only air). The great artery of the heart. It 
is distinguished into the ascending and descending. 

209 


2 10 


undertakers’ manual. 


Aqueous. Watery. 

Aracanoid Membrane (Gr. arachne , a spider, and eidos, like¬ 
ness). The fine cobweb-like membrane situated between the 
dura and pia mater. It is the serous membrane of the cerebro¬ 
spinal centers. 

Arbor Vital Literally, tree of life. A term applied to the 
arborescent appearance presented by the cerebellum, when cut 
into vertically. 

Artery (Gr. aer, air, and tere'd, to hold). A vessel which carries 
the blood from the heart ; formerly supposed, from its being 
found empty after death, to contain only air. 

Arytenoid (Gr. ariitaina , a ewer, and eidos, likeness). A term 
applied to two triangular cartilages of the larynx. 

Auditory (L. audio , to hear). Belonging to parts connected 
with the sense of hearing. 

Auricula (L. dim of auris , the ear). An auricle ; the prominent 
part of the ear. Also, the name of two cavities of the heart. 

Automatic Motions (Gr. automatos , of his own accord). Those 
muscular actions which are not dependent on the mind. 

B 

Bilis. Bile, gall, or choler ; the secretion of the liver. A term 
employed to characterize a class of diseases caused by a too 
copious secretion of bile. 

Bronchus (Gr. brongchos, the windpipe, from brecho , to moisten). 
The windpipe ; a ramification of the trachea ; so called from 
ancient belief that the solids were conveyed into the stomach by 
the oesophagus, and the fluids by the bronchia. 

Bronchial-tubes. The minute ramifications of the bronchi, ter¬ 
minating in the bronchial cells , or air cells of the lungs. 

Bronchitis. Inflammation of the bronchi or ramifications of the 
trachea. 

Bursas Mucosae ( mucous bags). Small sacs situated about the 
joints, being parts of the sheaths of tendons 


GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 


2 I I 


Caecum, or Ccecum (L. earns , blind). The first part of the colon> 
or blind intestine. 

Callus (Latin, hardness). New bone, or the substance which 
serves to join together the ends of a fracture, and to restore 
destroyed portions of bone. 

Capillary (L. capillus , a hair). Resembling a hair in size ; a 
term applied to the vessels which intervene between the minute 
arteries and veins. 

Capsula (L. dim. of capsa , a chest). Literally, a little chest. A 
capsule or bag, which incloses any part. 

Carbon (L. carbo, a coal). A substance well known under the 
form of coal, charcoal, lamp-black, &c. In chemical language, 
it denotes the pure inflammable principle of charcoal; in its 
state of absolute purity it constitutes the diamond. 

Carbonic Acid. Carbon and oxygen combined. 

Cardia (Gr. kardia, the heart). The entrance into the stomach ; 
so called from being near the heart. 

Cardiac (Gr. kardia , the heart). Relating to the heart. 

Carotid (Gr. karoo , to induce sleep). The name of two large 
arteries of the neck ; so called from an idea that tying them 
would induce stupor. 

Carpus (Gr. karpds , fruit). The wrist. The ossa carpi , or carpal 
bones, are eight in number, and form two rows. 

Cartilage. Gristle. It is attached to bones, and must be dis¬ 
tinguished from the ligaments of joints and tendons of muscles. 

Cerebellum (dim. of cerebrum). The little brain, situated behind 
the larger or cerebrum. 

Cerebrum (Gr. kdre , the head). The brain ; the chief portion of 
the brain, occupying the whole upper cavity of the skull. 

Cerebro-spinal. System. 

Cervix. The neck ; the hinder part of the neck. The fore part 
is called collum. 


2 12 


undertakers’ manual. 


Chest. Thorax. An old English term, commonly traced to the 
Latin cista. —“When it is considered that the same word was 
anciently used for a basket , the appropriation of it to the human 
thorax will appear quite natural to any one who has ever seen a 
skeleton. ”— Forbes. 

Chyle (Gr. chulos, juice). The milk-like fluid absorbed by the 
lacteal vessels. 

Chylification (L. fio, to become). The process by which the 
chyle is separated from the chyme. 

Chyme (Gr. chumos, juice). The semi-fluid matter which passes 
from the stomach into the duodenum. 

Chymification (L. fio. to become). The process by which the 
aliment is converted into chyme. 

Clavicula (dim. of clavis, a key). The clavicle, or collard>one ; 
so called from its resemblance to an ancient key. 

Coccyx (Gr. kokkux , a cuckoo). The lower end of the spine ; so 
called from its resemblance to a cuckoo’s beak. 

Colon (Gr. kolon, quasi, kollon , hollow). The first of the large 
intestines, commencing at the ccecum, and terminating at the 
rectum. 

Coma (Gr. koma, drowsiness, from keo, to lie). Drowsiness; 
lethargic sleep ; dead sleep ; torpor. 

Commissure (L. commissura). To joint or sever the place where 
two bodies or parts of a body meet and unite. 

Condyle (Gr. kondulos , a knuckle). A rounded eminence in the 
joints of several bones, as the humerus and the femur. 

Congestion (L. congero , to amass). Undue fullness of the blood¬ 
vessels. 

Conjunctiva (L. conjungo , to unite). The mucous membrane 
which lines the posterior surface of the eyelids, and is continued 
over the fore-part of the globe of the eye. 

Corium. Leather. The deep layer of cutis, or true skin, form, 
ing the basis of the support of the skin. 


GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 


213 

Corpusculum (L. dim. of corpus , a body). A corpuscle, or little 
body. 

Cranium (Or. kdra, the head). The skull, or cavity, which con¬ 
tains the brain, its membranes and vessels. 

Cricos (Gr. kriki'os, a ring). Whence cricoid, the name of the 
ring-like cartilage of the larynx. 

Crystalline (Gr. knistallos , ice). A term applied to the lens of 
the eye. 

Cuticle (L. dim. of cutis). The epidermis or scarf-skin. 

Cutis (Gr. kutos, the skin). The true skin, as distinguished from 
the cuticle, epidermis or scarf-skin. 


D 

Deglutition (L. deglutio , to swallow). The act of swallowing. 

Diaphragm (Gr. didphragma , a partition). The midriff; the 
transverse muscular partition which separates the thorax from 
the abdomen. 

Digestion (L. digero , from divcrsim gero, to carry into different 
parts). In rhysiology , the change of food into chyme by the 
mouth, stomach and small intestines ; and the absorption and 
distribution of the more nutritious parts, or the chyle, through 
the system. 

Dorsum (Latin). The back ; the round part of the back of a 
man or beast. Whence Dorsal, appertaining *0 the back, as 
applied to a region, ligaments, &c. 

Duodenum (L. duodeni, twelve). The twelve-inch intestine ; so 
called from its being equal in length to the breadth of twelve 
fingers. The first portion of the small intestines, beginning 
from the pylorus. 

Dura Mater ( hard-mother ). The outermost membrane of the 
brain. 


2 1 4 


undertakers’ manual. 


E 

Effluvia (L. ejfluo , to flow out). Exhalations, vapors, &c. 

Elasticity. The property or power by which a body com¬ 
pressed or extended returns to its former state. 

Enamel. The hard exterior surface of the teeth. 

Encephalon (Gr. hi, in, kephale, the head). The brain ; the 
contents of the skull, consisting of the cerebrum, cerebellum, 
medulla oblongata, and membranes. 

Epidermis (Gr. epi , upon, and dlrma, the skin) The cuticle, or 
scarf-skin ; the thin, horny layer which protects the surface of 
the integument. 

Epiglottis. A cartilage of the larynx, situated above the glottis. 

Epiploon (Gr. pleo , to sail). The omentum ; a membranous ex¬ 
pansion which floats upon the intestines. 

Epithelium (Gr. tithemi , to place). The cuticle on the red part 
of the lips, and on the mucous membranes in general. 

Excretion (L. excerno , to separate from). A general term for 
the perspiration, faeces, &c., which are separated and voided 
from the blood or the food. 

Expiration (L. expiro , to breathe). That part of the respiration 
in which the air is expelled. Compare Inspiration. 

Exudation. Transpiration. The flow of liquid from the surface 
of the skin or membrane, an ulcer, &c. 

F 

Facial (L. facies , the face). Belonging to the face; as facial 
nerve , facial vein, &c. 

Falx. A scythe or sickle. The sickle- like processes of the dura 
mater, situated between the lobes of the cerebrum and cere¬ 
bellum. 

Fascia (L. fascis, a bundle). Literally, a scarf or large band. 
Hence it is applied to the aponeurotic expansion of a muscle. 


GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 215 

Fasciculus (L. dim. of fnscis , a bundle). A little bundle ; a 
handful. Thus, a muscle consists of fasciculi of fibres. 

Fauces. The gullet or upper part of the throat ; the space sur¬ 
rounded by the vellum palati, the uvula, the tonsils, and the 
posterior part of the tongue. 

Femur, Femoris. Os femoris. The thigh-bone ; the longest, 
largest and heaviest of all the bones of the body. 

Fibre (L. fibra , a filament). A filament or thread, of animal, 
vegetable or mineral composition. 

Fibril. A small filament or fibre, as the ultimate division of a 
nerve. The term is derived from fibrilla , L. dim. of fibra , a 
filament. 

Fibrin. A tough, fibrous mass, which, together with albumen, 
forms the basis of muscle. 

Fibro-CARTILAGE. Membraniform cartilage ; a substance inter¬ 
mediate between proper cartilage and ligament. 

Filament (L. filum, a thread, forma , likeness). Thread-like ; 
applied to the papilke at the edges of the tongue. 

P'lSSURE. A cleft ; a longitudinal opening. 

Flexor (L. flecto , to bend). A muscle which bends the part into 
which it is inseited. Its antagonist is termed extensor. 

Fluids. Substances which have the quality of fluidity, and are, 
in consequence, of no fixed shape. 

Follicle (L. dim. of fo/lis, a pair of bellows). Literally, a little 
bag or scrip of leather. In anatomy, a very minute secreting 
cavity. 

Foramen (L. foro , to pierce). An opening. 

Fossa (L. fodio , to dig). A ditch or trench ; a little depression, 
or sinus. 

Function (L. fungor , to discharge an office). The office of an 
organ in the animal or vegetable economy ; as of the heart in 
circulation, of the leaf in respiration, &c. 


undertakers’ manual. 


2 16 


G 

Gall-bladder. A membranous reservoir, lodged in a fissure on 
the under surface of the right lobe of the liver, and containing 
the bile. 

Gall-ducts. These are the cystic , proceeding from the gall¬ 
bladder ; the hepatic , proceeding from the liver; and the ductus 
communis choledochus, resulting from the union of the two 
preceding. 

Ganglion (Gr. gangglion , a nerve-knot). A small nervous center, 
or an enlargement in the course of a nerve, sometimes termed a 
diminutive brain. 

Gaster. The Greek term for stomach. 

Gastric (Gr. gaster , the stomach). Pertaining to the stomach ; as 
the gastric juice, &c. 

Gastric Juice. The peculiar digestive fluid secreted by the 
stomach. 

Gelatine (L. gelu , frost). The principle of jelly. It is found in 
the skin, cartilages, tendons, membranes and bones. The purest 
variety of gelatine is isinglass. 

Gland (L. glans, glandis, an acorn). A soft body, composed of 
various tissues, vessels, nerves, &c., usually destined to separate 
some fluids from the blood. 

Glenoid (Gr. glene, a cavity, eidos, likeness). The name of a 
part having a shallow cavity ; as the socket of the shoulder joint. 

Globules Red (L. dim. of globus, a ball). The red coloring 
matter of the blood ; a peculiar animal principle. 

Glossa, or Glotta (Gr. glotta). The tongue; the organ of 
speech. Glosso. Terms compounded of this word belong to 
nerves or muscles attached to the tongue. 

Glottis. The aperture of the larynx between the arytsenoid 
cartilages. It is covered by a cartilage called the epi-glottis. 

Granule. A small particle. 


GLOSSARY AMD INDEX. 


2 1 7 


H 

H.ematosin (Gr. haima, blood). A characteristic constituent of 
the blood, derived from the globules. 

Haemorrhage. A rupture of a blood-vessel ; a bursting forth of 
blood ; loss of blood. 

Hepatic. A term applied to any part belonging to the liver. 

Humerus. The bone of the upper arm. 

Humor (L. humeo , to be moist). An aqueous substance ; as the 
humors of the eye. 

Hygiene (Gr. to be well). Health ; the preservation of health ; 
that part of medicine which regards the preservation of health. 

Hyoides (the Greek letter npsilon). A bone situated between 
the root of the tongue and the larynx. 

HYPOGASTRIUM. The lower anterior region of the abdomen. 

Hypoglossal. The name of the lingualis, or ninth pair of 
nerves, situated beneath the tongue. 

I, J 

Ichor. A thin, acrid discharge, issuing from wounds, ulcers, &c. 

Jejunum (L . jejunus, hungry). The upper two fifths of the small 
intestines ; so named from this portion being generally found 
empty. 

Ileum (to turn about). The lower three-fifths of the small intes¬ 
tines; so called from their convolutions or peristaltic motions. 

Iliac Bone. Another name for the os innominatum , derived 
from the circumstance that this compound bone supports the 
parts which the ancients called ilia, or the flanks. 

Iliac Region. The region situated on each side of the hypo- 
gastrium. 

Index (L. indico, to point outl The fore-finger; the finger 
usually employed in pointing at any object. 


undertakers’ manual. 


2 I 8 

Infra-spinatus. A muscle arising from the scapula below the 
spine, and inserted into the humerus. 

Innominatus (L. in, priv., nomen, name). Hence, Innominatum 
os, a bone composed of three portions, viz : I, The ilium , or 
haunch-bone ; 2. The ischium, or hip-bone ; 3, The os pubis, or 
share bone. 

Integument (L. in, and tego, to cover). The covering of any 
part of the body, as the cuticle, cutis, &c. 

Intf.r-costal. The name of two sets of muscles between the 
ribs—the external and the internal. 

Intestines (L. intus, within). That part of the alimentary canal 
which extends from the stomach to the anus. 

Jugular. Belonging to the neck ; applied chiefly to the principal 
veins of the neck. 


K 

Kingdom. A term denoting any of the principal divisions of 
nature. Thus we have the organic kingdom, comprehending 
substances which organize ; and the inorganic kingdom, compre¬ 
hending substances which crystallize. 

Knee-pan. Patella ; the small round bone at the front of the 
knee-joint. 

Kidneys. Two oblong glands, which secrete the urine. 

L 

Labia. The lips. They are laterally united by means of two 
acute angles, which are called their commissures. 

Labyrinth. The name of a series of cavities of the inner ear, 
viz: the vestibule, the cochlea, and the semi-circular canals. 

Lachryma. A tear; the fluid secreted by th z lachrymal gland. 
and flowing on the surface of the eye. 


glossary and index. 


210 


Lacteai.S (L. lac, milk). Numerous minute tubes which absorb 
or take up the chyle, or milk-like fluid, from the alimentary 
canal. 

Lactic Acid (L. lac, lactis, milk). An acid produced whenever 
milk—and perhaps most animal fluids—become spontaneously 
sour. 

Lamina. Literally, a small plate of any metal. A term applied 
to the foliated structure of bones or other organs. 

Larynx (Gr. larungx the larynx). The superior part of the 
trachea., situated immediately under the os hyoi'des. 

Lens (I, lens , lends, a bean). Properly, a small roundish glass, 
shaped like a lentil, or bean. 

Ligament (L. ligo , to bind). A membrane of a flexible but 
compact texture which connects the articular surfaces of bones 
and cartilages ; and sometimes protects the joints by a capsular 
envelope. 

Lingua (L. lingo, to lick). The tongue ; the organ of taste and 
speech. 

Liver. The largest glandular apparatus in the body, the office of 
which is to secrete the bile. 

Lumbi. The loins ; the inferior part of the back ; whence Lum¬ 
bar, the designation of nerves, arteries, veins, &c., belonging to 
the region of the loins. 

Lungs. The organs of respiration. 

Luxation (L. luxo, to put out of joint). Dislocation ; or the 
removal of the articular surface of bones out of their proper 
situation. 

LYMPH (L. lympha, water). A colorless liquid which circulates in 
the lymphatics. 

Lymphatics (L. lympha, water). Minute tubes which pervade 
every part of the body, which they absorb, or take up, in the 
form of lymph. 


220 


undertakers’ manual. 


M 

Magnesium. A metal having the color and lustre of silver. 

Masseter (Gr. to chew). A muscle which assists in chewing. 

Mastoid (Gr. a breast). Shaped like the breast or nipple ; as 
applied to a process, and a foramen of the temporal bone. 

Meatus (L. meo, to pass, to flow). Literally, a passage. 

Medulla. Marrow; a kind of fixed oil, occupying the cavities 
of bones. 

Medulla Oblongata. The upper enlarged portion of the spina 
cord. 

Medulla Spinalis. The spinal marrow or cord. 

Medullary. The designation of the white substance of the 
brain. 

Mesentery (Gr. between the bowels). The membrane which 
connects the small intestines and the posterior wall of the 
abdomen. 

META-CARrus (Gr. after, the wrist). That part of the hand which 
is situated between the carpus and the fingers. 

Meta-tarsus. That part of the foot which is situated between 
the tarsus and the toes. 

Midriff. Diaphragm. The muscle which divides the body into 
the thorax and the abdomen. 

Mitral Valves (L. mitra , a mitre). The name of two valves 
which guard the left ventricle of the heart. 

Molar (L. mo la, a mill-stone). The double or grinding teeth. 
Those with two fangs are called bicuspid, or false molars. 

Motor (L. moveo, to move). A mover; a part whose function is 

motion. 

Mucus. The liquid secreted by the mucous surfaces, as of the 
nostrils, intended as a protection to the parts exposed to exter¬ 
nal influences. 


GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 


22 1 


N 

Narcotics (Gr. stupor). Medicines which induce sleep or stupor, 
as opiates. 

Nasus. The nose, or organ of smell; whence nasal , belonging 
to the nose. 

Nerves (L. nervus, a string). White cords arising from the brain 
or the spinal marrow, and distributed to every part of the 
system. 

Neuron (Gr.) A nerve; a cord arising from the brain or spinal 
marrow. Whence Neurilemma , the sheath of a nerve ; and 
Neurology , the doctrine of the nerves. 

Nitrogen. Azote. An elementary principle, constituting four- 
fifths of the volume of atmospheric air. 

Nutrition (L. nutrio , to nourish). The process of nourishing 
the frame. 


O 

Obturator (L. obturo , to stop up). The name of two muscles of 
the thigh, and of a nerve. 

Occiput (L. ob caput). The back part of the head ; the part op¬ 
posite to the front or sinciput. 

(Esophagus (Gr. to carry, to eatl. A canal leading from the 
mouth to the stomach. 

Oleaginous (L. oleum , oil). That which contains or resembles oil. 

Olfactory (L. olfacio, to smell). Belonging to the smell; the 
name of the first pair of cerebral nerves, &c. 

Omentum. The caul ; a fold or reflexion of the peritoneum. 

Omo (Gr. the shoulder). Words compounded with this term be¬ 
long to muscles attached to the scapula. 

Optic. Belonging to the sight. 

Orbit (L. orbita , an orbit, a track). The cavity under the fore¬ 
head, in which the eye is fixed. 


222 


undertakers’ manual. 


Organ. A part which has a determinate office in the animal 
economy. 

Organization. A term applied to a system, composed of several 
individual parts, each of which has its proper function, but all 
conduce to the existence of the entire system. 

Origin (L. origo). The commencement of a muscle from any 
part. Its attachment to the part it moves is called its insertion. 

Os, Ossis. A bone ; a portion of the skeleton, constituting a 
passive organ of locomotion, as distinguished from a muscle or 
active organ of this faculty. 

Ossification. The formation of bone ; the deposition of cal¬ 
careous phosphate, or carbonate, on the soft solids of animal 
bodies. 

Oxides. Substances combined with oxygen, without being in the 
state of an acid. 

Oxygen. A gas which forms about one-fifth of atmospheric air, 
is capable of supporting flame, and is essential to the respiration 
of animals. 


P 

Pancreas. A gland, situated transversely across the posterior 
wall of the abdomen. In cattle it is called the sweet-bread. 

Pancreatic Juice. The peculiar fluid secreted by the pancreas. 

Papilla. The term papilhe denotes the small eminences which 
constitute the roughness of the upper surface of the tongue. 

Paralysis. Palsy ; the total loss, or diminution, of sensation or 
of motion, or of both. 

Parotid. The name of the large, salivary gland situated near 
the ear. 

Paries, Parietis. The wall of a house or any other building; 
whence Parietal , belonging to the walls of an organ. 

Patflla (L. dim. of patina , a pan). Literally, a small pan. The 
knee-pan. 


GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 


223 


Pectoral (L. pectus , the breast). Pertaining to the breast. 

Pectoralis. The name of two muscles of the trunk. 

Pedal (L. pedules). Pertaining to a foot. 

Pelvis (Gr. a basin). The basin or large bony cavity which ter¬ 
minates the trunk inferiorly. 

Pericardium (Gr. around the heart). A fibro-serous membrane 
which surrounds the heart. 

Pericranium. The periosteum or membrane which covers the 
bones of the cranium. 

Periosteum. The membrane which surrounds the bones. 

Peristaltic. A term applied to the vermicular contractions of 
the intestines upon themselves. 

Peritonaeum. The serous membrane which lines the interior of 
the abdomen, and invests all the viscera contained therein. 

Permeability (L. per, through, meo, to pass). That property of 
certain bodies by which they admit the passage of other bodies 
through their substance. 

Pers Pi ration (L. perspiro , to breathe through). The watery 
vapor which is constantly passing off through the skin. 

Pharynx (Gr. the throat). A musculo-membranous bag, situated 
at the back part of the mouth, leading to the stomach. 

Piirenes (Gr. the mind). The diaphragm ; so called because the 
ancients supposed it to be the seat of the mind. Hence the 
term Phrenic , a designation of the internal respiratory nerve, 
which goes to the diaphragm. 

Phrenology (Gr. an account). A description of the mind; a 
science, introduced by Gall and Spurzheim, by which particular 
characters and propensities are indicated by the conformation 
and protuberances of the skull. 

Physiology (Gr. ph-usis , nature, logos , an account). The science 
which treats of the properties of organic bodies, animal and 
vegetable, of the phenomena which they present, and of the 
laws which govern their actions. 


224 


undertakers’ manual. 


Pia Mater. A vascular membrane, investing the whole surface 
of the brain. 

Pituitary Membrane. A designation of the Schneiderian mem¬ 
brane, which lines the cavities of the nose. 

Plexus (L. plecto, to weave). A kind of net-work of blood¬ 
vessels or nerves. 

Pneumo-Gastric Nerves (Gr. pneumon , the lung, gasttr, the 
stomach). The par vagnum, nervi vagi, or eighth pair of nerves, 
distributed to the stomach. 

Portal Circulation. A subordinate part of the venous circula¬ 
tion, in which the blood makes an additional circuit before it 
joins the rest of the venous blood. 

Portal Vein (L. vena portce'). A vein originating from the 
organs within the abdomen. 

Potassium. The metallic base of the well known alkaline sub¬ 
stance, potassa. * 

Process. Apophysis. A process or eminence of a bone. Also, a 
lobe or portion of the brain. 

Pronation (L .pronus, bending downward). The act of turning 
the palm of the hand downwards, by rotating the radius upon 
the ulna by means of the pronator muscles. 

Pronator (L. promts, bending downward). The name of two 
muscles which turn the radius and the hand inwards and down¬ 
wards. 

Proximate Principle. A term applied, in analyzing any body, 
to the principle which is nearest to the natural constitution of 
the body, and more immediately the object of sense, as distin¬ 
guished from intermediate or ultimate principles. Ultimate 
principles are the elements of which proximate principles are 
composed. 

Pulmonary, pulmonic (L . pulmo, the lungs). Relating or belong¬ 
ing to the lungs. 

Pulse (L. pulsus, a stroke). A beating or striking ; and hence, 
the stroke or beat of an artery. 


GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 225 

Puncta Lachrymalia. The external commencements of the 
lacrymal ducts. 

Pupila (L. dim. of pupa, a puppet). The pupil, or the round 
aperture in the center of the iris of the eye. 

Pylorus (Gr. pule, a gate, ora , care). Literally a gate-keeper. 
The lower and contracted orifice of the stomach, guarding the 
entrance into the bowels. 


Q 

Quartz. A species of silieious minerals. 


R 

Ramification (L. ramus, a branch, fo, to become). The issuing 
of a small branch from a large one, as of the minute branches 
from the larger arteries. 

Ramus. A branch of a tree ; the designation of portions of sev¬ 
eral bones. 

Rectum (L. rectus , straight). The last portion of the intestines. 

Refraction (L. refract us, broken back). The property of light, 
by which a ray becomes bent, or refracted, when passing from a 
rarer into a denser medium, and vice versa. 

Respiration. The function of breathing. 

Retina (L. rete, a net). The net like expansion of the optic nerve 
on the inner surface of the eye. 

S 

Sac (L. saccus, a bag). A term applied to a small cavity, as the 
lacrymal sac. 

Sacrum (L. Sacred). The bone which forms the basis of the 
vertebral column ; so called from its having been offered in sac¬ 
rifice, and hence considered sacred. 


226 


UNDERTAKERS* MANUAL. 


Sacro. A term applied to parts connected with the sacrum. 
Hence we have sacro -iliac symphysis, sacrospinal ligament, 
.wcr^-vertebral angle, &c. 

Saliva. The insipid, transparent, viscous liquid secreted by the 
salivary glands, principally the parotid. 

Sanguis. Blood ; the fluid which circulates in the heart, arteries 
and veins. 

Sartorius (L. sartor , a tailor). The muscle by means of which 
the tailor crosses his legs. 

Scapula. The shoulder-blade. 

Schneiderian Membrane. The pituitary membrane , which se¬ 
cretes the mucous of the nose ; so named from Schneider, who 
first described it. 

Sclerotica (Gr. sklerbs, hard). The dense fibrous membrane 
which, with the cornea , forms the external tunic of the eye ball. 

Sebaceous (L. sebum , suet). Suety ; a term applied to follicles , 
which secrete a peculiar oily matter, and are abundant in some 
parts of the skin, as in the nose, &c. 

Secretion (L. secerno , to separate). A substance secreted or sep¬ 
arated from the blood by the action of a secreting organ. 

Serum. The thin yellowish fluid constituent of the blood. 

Sinciput. The fore part of the head. The back part is called 
occiput. 

Sinew. The ligament which joins two bones. 

Sinus. A gulf. Hence it denotes a cavity or cell within the sub¬ 
stance of a bone, as of the forehead; also a large venous canal, 
as those of the dura mater. 

Skeleton (Gr. ske'l/o , to dry up). The dry, bony frame work of 
an animal, which sustains the other organs. 

Spinal Cord. Medulla spinalis. The medullary matter con¬ 
tained within the spine , or vertebral column. 

Spleen. A spongy organ situated at the left and behind the 
stomach. 


GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 


227 

Splint-bone. The fibula or small bone of the leg ; so named 
from its resembling a surgical splint. 

Sternum. The breast bone. 

Sub. A Latin preposition, denoting a position beneath any body. 

Sub-clavian. Situated under the clavicle. 

Sub-CLAVIUS. A muscle arising from the cartilage of the first rib, 
and inserted into the lower surface of the clavicle. 

Sub-cutaneous. Beneath the skin. 

Sub-lingual. Beneath the tongue. 

o 

Sub-maxillary. Beneath the jaw. 

Sudor (L. sudo, to sweat). Sweat; the vapor which passes 
through the skin and condenses on the surface of the body. 

Sudoriferous Canals. Minute spiral follicles, distributed over 
the whole surface of the skin, for the secretion of the sweat. 

Suture (I.. sue, to sew). A seam ; the junction of the bones of 
the cranium by a serrated line, resembling the stitches of a 
seam. 

Sympathetic Nerve. A nerve consisting of a chain of ganglia, 
extending along the side of the vertebral column from the 
head to the coccyx, communicating with all the other nerves 
of the body, and supposed to produce a sympathy between 
the affections of different parts. 

T 

Tarsus. The instep ; the space between the bones of the leg 
and metatarsus. 

Tears. A peculiar fluid which lubricates the eye. 

Tempora (L. pi. of tempns , time). The temples, or that part of 
the head on which the hair generally begins to turn gray, thus 
indicating the age; whence temporal, pertaining to the temples, 
as temporal bones. 

Tenacity (L. tenco , to hold). The degree of force with which 
the particles of bodies cohere or are held together. 


228 


undertakers’ manual. 


Tendon (L. tdino, to stretch). A fibrous cord at the extremity of 
a muscle, by which the muscle is attached to a bone. 

Tensor (L. tendo , to stretch). A muscle which stretches any part. 

Tentacula. A filliform process or organ on the bodies of various 
animals. 

Thorax (Gr. thorax). The chest; or that cavity of the body 
which contains the heart and lungs. 

Thoracic Duct. The great trunk formed by the junction of the 
absorbent vessels. 

Thyroid (Gr. thureos, a shield). The name given to a shield¬ 
shaped cartilage of the larynx, and of a gland situated on the 
trachea. 

Tibia. Literally, a flute or pipe. The shin-bone, or the great 
bone of the leg. 

Tibial Tibialis. Pertaining to the tibia. 

Tissue. A web, or web-like structure, constituting the elementary 
structures of animals and plants. 

Tonsils (L. tondeo , to flip or shear). The round gland situated 
in the throat between the pillars of the velum palati. 

Trachea (Gr. trculms, rough). The wind-pipe. The term is 
derived from the inequality of its cartilages. 

Triceps. Having three heads. Applied to several muscles. 

Tricuspid. Having three points. A term applied to three trian¬ 
gular fords or valves situated between the right auricle and the 
right ventricle of the heart. 

Trifacial. Triple-facial. A term applied to the fifth pair of 
nerves, the grand sensitive nerve of the head and face. 

Trochanter (Gr. trochdo , to run or roll). The name of two pro¬ 
cesses of the thigh-bone—the major and the minor. 

Tunic. The upper garment of the Romans. Hence it is applied 
to several membranes of the body. 

Tympanum (Gr. ttimpanon , a drum). The drum of the ear. 


GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 


229 


U 

Ulna (Or. ole'ne , the cubit). The large bone of the fore-arm ; so 
named from its being often used as a measure, under the 
term ell. 

Uvea (L. uva , grape). The posterior surface of the iris; so 
called from its resemblance in color to a ripe grape. 


V 

Vacuum (L. vaccus , empty). Literally, an empty place. This 
term generally denotes the interior of a close vessel, from which 
the atmospheric air and every other gas have been extracted. 

Valve (L. valves, folding-doors). A close lid affixed to a tube or 
opening in some vessel, by means of a hinge or other movable 
joint, and which can be opened only in one direction. Hence 
it signifies a little membrane which prevents the return of fluid 
in the blood-vessels and absorbents. 

Valvula (L. dim. of valve). A little valve. 

Vas, Vasis. Plural, Vasa. A vessel, or any utensil to hold liquor. 

Vascular System. That part of the animal economy which 
relates to the vessels. 

Venous. Belonging to a vein. 

VeN'TRICULUS (L. dim. of venter , the belly). The term ventricle is 
also applied to two cavities of the heart, and to several cavities 
in other parts of the body. 

Vertebra (L. verto , to turn). A bone of the spine ; so named 
from its turning upon the adjoining one. 

Vertebral. Connected with the vertebra. 

Vf.SSICLE (L. dim. of vesica , a bladder). A little bladder. 

VlLLUS. Literally, the shaggy hair of beasts. Some of the mem¬ 
branes of the body, as the mucous membrane of the intestinal 
canal, present a surface of minute papilloe, termed villi , villosi- 
ties, resembling a downy tissue, continually covered with fluid. 


230 



Vitreous Body (L. vitrum , glass). Vitteous humour. A trans¬ 
parent mass, resembling melted glass, occupying 
the eye, and inclosed in the hyaloid membrane. 


the globe of 


c 


w 



Warm-blooded. A term applied to the mammalia and birds 
which have a two-fold circulation. 


X 

Xyphoid (Gr. xiphos , a sword, e'idos, likeness). Sword-like ; a 
term applied to the cartilage of the sternum. 


THE END. 






















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